Backpropagation of Error Algorithm
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Backward Inhibitory Conditioning ▶ Pain-relief Learning
Balance Theory Balance theory is a motivational theory of attitude change proposed by Fritz Heider (1958) which conceptualizes the consistency motive as a drive toward psychological balance. Heider proposes that “sentiment” or liking relationships are balanced if the affect valence in a system multiplies out to a positive result.
References Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
Bands ▶ Instrumental Learning in Music Education
Banking Education ▶ Reproductive Learning
Barriers to Organizational Learning DENIS FISCHBACHER-SMITH, MOIRA FISCHBACHER-SMITH Department of Management, University of Glasgow Business School, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
Synonyms Crisis incubation
Definition Barriers to organizational learning are seen as those systems and behaviors that prevent or inhibit organizations from adapting to the main decision-making challenges that they face. They can also arise from the processes of identifying and adopting new behaviors and practices in light of successes and failures. These barriers can occur at multiple levels within and between organizations, and involve both individual and group processes and behaviors.
Theoretical Background The manner in which organizations fail to learn lessons from both internal and external “sources” has been an issue that lies at the core of a number of debates within “management” theory and practice (Argyris 1990; Senge 1990; Toft and Reynolds 1994). General theories of management have tended to focus on the positive role of learning as a means of enhancing organizational performance, and have advocated learning across organizational settings. However, there are inevitable problems in simply taking a successful approach from one organization/context and applying it elsewhere, without grounding that learning within the cultural, spatial, and temporal settings in which that learning is believed both to have taken place and subsequently to apply. Simplistic approaches to learning – termed “template management” – are significant in shaping and limiting an organization’s abilities to learn and
N. Seel (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6, # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012
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Barriers to Organizational Learning
may generate considerable barriers to appropriately defining, framing, and addressing the problems from which learning is required. In the same way that learning is associated with improved performance, failure to learn is associated with diminished performance. Research has identified a series of barriers to learning (Smith and Elliott 2007) that appear to have validity in explaining the processes by which organizational failures occur and are “incubated.” Several key barriers to organizational learning have been outlined within the literature (for a summary see, Fischbacher-Smith and Fischbacher-Smith 2009; Smith and Elliott 2007). A common barrier is generated by the core beliefs values and assumptions held by
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