Detector electronics for experiments at the large hadron collider
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etector Electronics for Experiments at the Large Hadron Collider N. M. Nikityuk and V. N. Samoylov Laboratory of Information Technologies, Scientific Center of Applied Researches, Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, Moscow oblast, 141980 Russia Abstract—The state of the art of a tracking detector and calorimeter electronics that are being developed for experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is discussed. Construction of the detectors is briefly described. The problems of fabrication of integrated circuits based on a radiation-resistant technology are considered, as well as the solution to the problem of microconnections between sensitive elements and readout amplifiers in two-coordinate semiconductor detectors. The parameters and block diagrams of both analog and digital integrated circuits are given; these circuits are used for amplifying and shaping the signals measured by tracking detectors of elementary particles and calorimeters. The contributions of Russian experimenters and physicists of the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research to the development of detector electronics for experiments at the LHC is described. PACS numbers: 07.05.Wr, 07.50.-e DOI: 10.1134/S1063779606070045
1. INTRODUCTION Over the past several decades, significant progress has been achieved in understanding the principles of basic matter in both theoretical and experimental aspects. A theory of fundamental particles and their interactions is being developed. Using the Standard Model, many problems of the structure and stability of matter with six types of quarks, six types of leptons, and four types of force have been explained. One of the main reasons for developing the LHC is the search for Higgs particles with the largest masses. Such problems have been posed as the search for W objects similar to Z objects and supersymmetric particles, the study of CP violation in B-meson decays and top quarks, and the performing of experiments for studying collisions of heavy ions such as calcium and lead. Other experiments have also been designed, including experiments associated with the modernization of the LHC. The LHC project was approved at CERN in 1994. According to plan, the accelerator should be put into operation in 2007. The set of problems that will be studied using experimental installations at the LHC is described in the complete review [1]. The main parameters of the accelerator and beam for p–p experiments are as follows: —energy 7.0 TeV; —luminosity 1034 cm–2 s–1; —time between bunches 25 ns; —number of bunches in the accelerator cycle 3564; —dipole magnet field 8.3 T; —bunch size in the longitudinal direction (FWHM) 0.075 m;
—circulating beam current 0.53 A; —number of particles per bunch 1 × 1011; —orbital period 88 µs. The main parameters of the accelerator and beam for Pb–Pb experiments are as follows: —energy per charge 7.0 TeV; —energy per nucleon 2.76 TeV/u; —dipole magnet field 8.3 T; —peak luminosity 2 × 1027 cm–2 s–1; —number of ions per bunch 9 × 107; —number of bunches in the beam 604 [2]. The project of the
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