International Orientation as a Precondition for Export Success
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WHY AND HOW TO BOOSTEXPORTS
The leading industrialnations of the world differ to a great extent with regardto their export performance.Without delving into its causes and effects, it is certainthat long-termtradedeficits have a seriousimpact on each country'swell-beingand internationalreputation. In 1985the United Statesexperienceda huge imbalanceof trade.Imports exceededexportsby $111.9billion. By the end of 1986the gap widenedto $146.4billion. In 1988the deficit may well have reachedthe $170 billion mark [OECD 1987;IMF 1987].The United Statestherebyturned from a creditorfor years to a substantialdebtor, outdistancingeven Brazil. *Dr. Erwin Dichtl is Professorof BusinessAdministrationat the Universityof Mannheim,FederalRepublicof Germany.He is author or coauthor of a dozen books and numerousarticles on topics relatingto domestic and international marketing,retailing,domestictradepolicy and other fields, which haveappeared both in Europeanand in non-Europeanjournals. Dr. Hans-GeorgKoeglmayrwas, and Dipl.Psych.StefanMuelleris, associatedwith the Institut fur Marketingat the Universityof Mannheim. The authors are grateful to Philip J. Rosson, Warren J. Bilkey, Stanley Reid and Hugh E. Kramer as well as three anonymous JIBS reviewersfor their helpful comments. They also appreciate the assistance provided by Fumio Kondo, Kyoto University, Marius Leibold, University of Stellenbosch, and Ki-An Park, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, with the collection of data. Received: August 1987; Revised: October 1988 & January 1989; Accepted: February 1989.
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JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, FIRST QUARTER 1990
throughfinancialmarkets. The impactof this developmenthas reverberated Thereareevensigns of a loss of confidenceat largein the economicpower of the United States and the wisdom of her political leaders. In publicationsdealingwith this issue, renewedforeignmarketefforts are often recommendedas a propermeansof combattingthe obviouscrisis.In the case of the United States,this is also suggestedby some otheralarming figures.In 1987the per capitavolumeof foreigntradeamountedto $5,343 in the EC, $4,314in Japanand $2,599in the United States.The U.S. figure amountsto barelyhalf of what the citizensof the EC countriesattain on an average. The problem,however,lies not only with the balanceof tradeand similar macroeconomicindicators.Therearefarmoreimminentdangersemanating from falling behind whicthcan be felt by everyindividual. Actually,the beneficialeffectof exportingby farexceedsthe directlynoticeable and statisticallyrecordedlevels.The efforts of foreigncompetitorsin the domestic market,for example,increasethe supply pressureat home, forcingnational suppliersto adjust their ways to better suit the needs of consumers and to seek and exploit the possibilities of rationalization [Samuelson 1985; Grubel 1977]. A commission appointed by President Reaganin 1983to studyU.
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