Mallophaga (Biting Lice or Bird Lice)
Apterous insects living as ectoparasites mainly of birds, less frequently of mammals. Eyes reduced. No ocelli. Antennae 3- to 5-segmented. Mouthparts of a modified biting type; maxillary palpi 4-segmented or wanting; ligula undivided or 2-lobed, labial pa
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MALLOPHAGA (BITING LICE OR BIRD LICE) Apterous insects living as ectoparasites mainly of birds, less frequently of mammals. Eyes reduced. No ocelli. Antennae 3- to s-segmented. Mouthparts of a modified biting type; maxillary palpi 4-segmented or wanting; ligula undivided or· 2-lobed, labial palps rudimentary. Prothorax evident, free; meso- and metathorax often imperfectly separated; tarsi 1- or 2-segmented, terminated by single or paired claws. Thoracic spiracles ventral. Cerci absent. Metamorphosis slight. The Mallophaga are very small or small (o·s to 10 mm long), flat-bodied, active insects entirely adapted for an ectoparasitic life; for general accounts see Eichler (1963) and von Keter (1969). The majority of the species infest birds and a smaller number occur on mammals. Most Mallophaga feed on fragments of feathers, hair and other epidermal products, but Ewing (1924) says that Gyropus ova/is and Gliricola porcelli obtain sebum and possibly serum by probing into the hair follicles of their hosts while Crutchfield and Hixson (1943) find that Menacanthus spp. feed habitually on blood in addition to feathers. Other species may imbibe blood from wounds, as, for instance, when a bird is shot. Hosts seem able to withstand the usual degree of infestation without obvious ill-effects but with exceptionally heavy infestations there may be some loss of plumage and deterioration in condition due to irritation. Dust-baths and 'anting' in birds may possibly be attempts to rid themselves of these parasites. Mallophaga tend frequently to be restricted to special areas of the host's body. For example, on the pigeon, Columbicola columbae is found mainly on the remiges of the wing while Goniocotes bidentatus occurs on the small feathers of the neck (Beier, 1936). In populations of Bovicola bovis on cattle, Craufurd-Benson (1941) found that there was some segregation into breeding clusters and nymphal colonies though this was complicated by seasonal changes in the distribution of infestation over the host's body. After the death of the host, Mallophaga are capable of survival for only a short period (a few hours to three days). Migration from one host to another probably occurs mainly through bodil) contact of the hosts though recorded instances of Mallophaga clinging tc Culicid and Hippoboscid flies shows that phoresy may play some part i11 O. W. Richards et al., Imms’ General Textbook of Entomology © O. W. Richards and R. G. Davies 1977
MALLOPHAGA (BITING LICE OR BIRD LICE)
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their spread (Clay and Meinertzhagen, 19'43; Keiran, 1975). There appears to be a definite relation between the evolution of the lice and that of their hosts so that groups of closely related host species tend to be infested by similar Mallophaga (Hopkins, 1942; 1949). Several authors have suggested that this type of host-association may aid in elucidating the phylogeny of the hosts. Thus, the flamingoes (Phoenicopteridae) have four Mallophagan genera in common with the ducks (Anatidae) but only one with the storks (Ciconiidae), thus indicating a clo
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