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TRODUCTION

CURRENTLY, the most commonly used materials in biomedical applications are metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites. Because prosthetic devices and components need to fulfill several imperative requirements, they need to remain integral over a long use period without being rejected by the human body. The design and selection of biomaterials depend on the type of medical application. Materials used as implants are expected to be non-toxic and should not cause any inflammatory or allergic reactions to the human organs.[1–3] It is well known that all metals and alloys are subjected to corrosion when in contact with bodily fluid. A variety of chemical reactions can occur on the surface of a surgically implanted alloy. On the other hand, the mechanical properties decide the type of material that can be selected for a specific application.

WALID MOHAMED RASHAD MOHAMED DAOUSH, Associate Professor and Department Head, is with the Department of Production Technology, Faculty of Industrial Education, Helwan University, 30 El Sawah Street, Cairo 11511-11668, Egypt. Contact e-mail: [email protected] HEE SUP PARK, Researcher, is with the Institute of Industrial Technology, ILJIN Diamond Co., Ltd., 614-2 Oryu-Ri, Daeso-Myun, Eumsung-Kun, Chungcheongbuk-Do 369-824, Republic of Korea. FAWAD INAM, Director of Mechanical Engineering, is with the Department of Mechanical and Construction Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Environment, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, U.K. BYUNG KYU LIM, Researcher, and SOON HYUNG HONG, Professor and Head of the Composite Materials Lab. are with the Composite Materials Lab., Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea. Manuscript submitted April 21, 2014. Article published online December 12, 2014 METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A

Some of the mechanical properties for bio applications that are of prime importance are hardness, fatigue life, tensile strength, modulus, and elongation.[4–7] Materials generally used currently for surgical implants are 316L stainless steel, cobalt chromium (Co-Cr) alloys, and titanium and its alloys. Elements such as Ni, Cr, and Co are found to be leached from the stainless steel and cobalt chromium alloys due to corrosion in the body environment.[8,9] Skin-related diseases, such as dermatitis due to Ni toxicity, have been reported and numerous animal studies have shown carcinogenicity due to the presence of Co.[10] In addition, both 316L stainless steel and Cr-Co alloys possess much higher modulus than bone, leading to insufficient stress transfer to bone, which causes bone resorption and loosening of implant after some years of implantation.[11] Among the materials available for implant applications, the natural selection of titanium-based materials for implantation is due to the combination of its outstanding characteristics such as high strength, low density, good corrosion resistance, good bioc