Neonicotinoids in groundwater: presence and fate in two distinct hydrogeologic settings in Ontario, Canada
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PAPER
Neonicotinoids in groundwater: presence and fate in two distinct hydrogeologic settings in Ontario, Canada D. Browne 1 & J. Levison 1 & V. Limay-Rios 2 & K. Novakowski 3 & A. Schaafsma 2 Received: 29 September 2019 / Accepted: 24 September 2020 # Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020
Abstract Neonicotinoids are a group of insecticides that are commonly used in agriculture throughout the world. Despite their widespread use, there are significant knowledge gaps related to the presence and fate of neonicotinoids in groundwater. This research explores the environmental parameters governing the transport of the most commonly found neonicotinoids from surface application to deeper groundwater in two distinct hydrogeologic settings. Both of these research sites are located in Ontario, Canada: one has an unconfined, sandy Quaternary aquifer while the other has a fractured, crystalline bedrock aquifer (Canadian Shield) under a thin layer of soil and till. Groundwater sampling was conducted using 18–26 monitoring intervals at each research site during each sampling round (April 2016, July 2016, August 2016, November 2016, and April 2017). Analysis of six neonicotinoids, two fungicides, two herbicides, and one ryanoid insecticide were conducted using liquid chromatography– mass spectrometry (positive electrospray ionization)–tandem mass spectrometry. During the groundwater sampling period, soil sampling was conducted, and a crop survey completed. Results from groundwater sampling found the neonicotinoids clothianidin, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam with maximum concentrations and detection frequencies above the level of quantitation of 2.09, 0.7, 0.46 μg/L, and 2.2, 0.9, 1.3%, respectively. Numerical analysis revealed that under similar environmental conditions, clothianidin and thiamethoxam are released in a similar pattern that resembles a pulse. Future research into this subject should include a finer sampling timeframe to confirm theories about the pulsing nature of neonicotinoids in groundwater. Keywords Neonicotinoids . Groundwater . Fractured rocks . Sandy aquifer
Introduction Neonicotinoids are a group of insecticides that are commonly used on crops such as potato, wheat, maize, and soybeans. These insecticides have become prevalent largely due to their ease of application; they are most often applied as a seed Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-020-02250-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. * D. Browne [email protected] 1
School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
2
Animal Science Building, University of Guelph Ridgetown Campus, Ridgetown, ON N0P 2C0, Canada
3
Civil Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
dressing prior to sowing. The first neonicotinoid, imidacloprid, was introduced in 1991, followed in the mid1990s by the other first-generation neonicotinoids: acetamiprid, nitenpyram, and thiacloprid (Maienfisch et al.
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