Progress in three-dimensional bioprinting
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Introduction Over the past decade, threedimensional (3D) printing and related additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have started to rapidly displace traditional manufacturing in a wide range of industries and applications, from automotive to aerospace to medical devices.1–5 The capability to accurately deposit materials layerbylayer in 3D space with precision of USD$100,000. A number of research groups and core facilities at major research universities have purchased these commer cial systems, but the install base is relatively small. In the last five years, the emergence of the open-source and “maker” communities has led to the growth of low-cost 3D bioprinting platforms with widespread accessibility. This tran sition has been driven by a number of fundamental 3D print ing patents expiring, enabling established AM technologies to be integrated into a new generation of low-cost systems. The start of this process was the expiration of the patent for FDM in 1999, which described the process of layer-by-layer 3D printing using a thermoplastic filament.27 This technology was rapidly moved into the open-source community through the RepRap project28 and Fab@Home29 and resulted in the cost of FDM-type 3D printers dropping from >USD$10,000 to
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