School Bullying, Perpetration, and Cyberhate: Overlapping Issues
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School Bullying, Perpetration, and Cyberhate: Overlapping Issues Catherine Blaya 1,2 & Catherine Audrin 1,3
&
Grace Skrzypiec 4
# The Author(s) 2020
Abstract In an international context of increasing racism, xenophobia, anti-Semitism, and Islamophobia in Europe and the USA (FRA, 2013; Hawdon et al. 2015), social media provide a privileged tool for propaganda and victimization. Issues of racism and xenophobia have become more prevalent both in “real life” and on the Internet. This study presents the results of a selfreported questionnaire survey on cyberhate among 1900 French students, age 12–20, where we investigated the association between school bullying and cyberhate victimization and perpetration. Findings show that bullying and cyberhate are a common experience for quite a few young people. Structural equation models provide evidence of the association between ordinary offline victimization and involvement in cyberhate. Our findings for cyberhate provide further evidence suggesting an overlap between traditional bullying and cyberbullying. They confirm the need for further research to acquire a better understanding of the processes that underscore individual involvement in online hate in order to inform effective interventions. Keywords Cyberhate . Young people . Victimization . Involvement . School bullying . Overlap
Introduction Electronic communication is fully integrated into our daily lives. While it offers an unprecedented means of facilitating communication and freedom of expression worldwide, it can also be misused to convey hate. In an international context of increasing racism, xenophobia, anti-Semitism, and Islamophobia in Europe (FRA, 2013) and the USA (Potok 2011; Hawdon et al. 2015; Lennings et al. 2010), social media that facilitates user-generated content can be viewed as a privileged tool for propaganda and victimization. As such, issues of racism and xenophobia have become more prevalent both in “real life” and on the Internet (Blaya 2019; Chakraborti 2018; Corcoran et al. 2016; EHRC, 2016; Keipi et al. 2016; Williams et al. 2020). According to the Council of Europe Committee of Ministers on “hate speech” (Recommendation No. R (97) 20), online hate speech and the incitement of hatred have a potentially greater impact
* Catherine Blaya [email protected] 1
University of Teacher Education, Lausanne, Switzerland
2
URMIS, Université Nice Côte d’Azur, Nice, France
3
Swiss Center for Affective Science, Geneva, Switzerland
4
Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
when spread through social media. Indeed, hateful messages can be easily spread through social media Web 2.0 Internetbased applications that make the Internet more interactive and expedite the publication of user-generated content (Kaplan and Haenlein 2010, p. 21). Furthermore, the Internet offers hatemongers opportunities to recruit sympathizers to their cause and promote a collective identity that may be attractive to the most vulnerable and disfranchised young people in our communities (Perry and Olsson 2009). Accord
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