Uncertainty Theory

Uncertainty theory is a branch of mathematics based on normality, monotonicity, self-duality, and countable subadditivity axioms. The goal of uncertainty theory is to study the behavior of uncertain phenomena such as fuzziness and randomness. The main top

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Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing, Volume 154 Editor-in-chief Prof. Janusz Kacprzyk Systems Research Institute Polish Academy of Sciences ul. Newelska 6 01-447 Warsaw Poland E-mail: [email protected] Further volumes of this series can be found on our homepage: springer.com Vol. 202. Patrick Doherty, Witold Łukaszewicz, Andrzej Skowron, Andrzej Szalas Knowledge Representation Techniques: A Rough Set Approach, 2006 ISBN 978-3-540-33518-4 Vol. 203. Gloria Bordogna, Giuseppe Psaila (Eds.) Flexible Databases Supporting Imprecision and Uncertainty, 2006 ISBN 978-3-540-33288-6 Vol. 204. Zongmin Ma (Ed.) Soft Computing in Ontologies and Semantic Web, 2006 ISBN 978-3-540-33472-9 Vol. 205. Mika Sato-Ilic, Lakhmi C. Jain Innovations in Fuzzy Clustering, 2006 ISBN 978-3-540-34356-1 Vol. 206. A. Sengupta (Ed.) Chaos, Nonlinearity, Complexity, 2006 ISBN 978-3-540-31756-2 Vol. 207. Isabelle Guyon, Steve Gunn, Masoud Nikravesh, Lotfi A. Zadeh (Eds.) Feature Extraction, 2006 ISBN 978-3-540-35487-1 Vol. 208. Oscar Castillo, Patricia Melin, Janusz Kacprzyk, Witold Pedrycz (Eds.) Hybrid Intelligent Systems, 2007 ISBN 978-3-540-37419-0

Vol. 209. Alexander Mehler, Reinhard Köhler Aspects of Automatic Text Analysis, 2007 ISBN 978-3-540-37520-3 Vol. 210. Mike Nachtegael, Dietrich Van der Weken, Etienne E. Kerre, Wilfried Philips (Eds.) Soft Computing in Image Processing, 2007 ISBN 978-3-540-38232-4 Vol. 211. Alexander Gegov Complexity Management in Fuzzy Systems, 2007 ISBN 978-3-540-38883-8 Vol. 212. Elisabeth Rakus-Andersson Fuzzy and Rough Techniques in Medical Diagnosis and Medication, 2007 ISBN 978-3-540-49707-3 Vol. 213. Peter Lucas, José A. Gámez, Antonio Salmerón (Eds.) Advances in Probabilistic Graphical Models, 2007 ISBN 978-3-540-68994-2 Vol. 214. Irina Georgescu Fuzzy Choice Functions, 2007 ISBN 978-3-540-68997-3 Vol. 215. Paul P. Wang, Da Ruan, Etienne E. Kerre (Eds.) Fuzzy Logic, 2007 ISBN 978-3-540-71257-2 Vol. 216. Rudolf Seising The Fuzzification of Systems, 2007 ISBN 978-3-540-71794-2

Baoding Liu

Uncertainty Theory Second Edition

With 10 Figures and 4 Tables

Dr. Baoding Liu Uncertainty Theory Laboratory Department of Mathematical Sciences Tsinghua University Beijing 100084 China [email protected]

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007930458

ISSN print edition: 1434-9922 ISSN electronic edition: 1860-0808 ISBN 978-3-540-21333-8 1st Edition Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN 978-3-540-73164-1 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyr