Using scaffolding to formalize digital coach support for low-literate learners
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Using scaffolding to formalize digital coach support for low‑literate learners Dylan G. M. Schouten1 · Pim Massink2 · Stella F. Donker2 · Mark A. Neerincx1 · Anita H. M. Cremers3 Received: 5 December 2019 / Accepted in revised form: 12 September 2020 © The Author(s) 2020
Abstract In this study, we attempt to specify the cognitive support behavior of a previously designed embodied conversational agent coach that provides learning support to low-literates. Three knowledge gaps are identified in the existing work: an incomplete specification of the behaviors that make up ‘support,’ an incomplete specification of how this support can be personalized, and unclear speech recognition rules. We use the socio-cognitive engineering method to update our foundation of knowledge with new online banking exercises, low-level scaffolding and user modeling theory, and speech recognition. We then refine the design of our coach agent by creating comprehensive cognitive support rules that adapt support based on learner needs (the ‘Generalized’ approach) and attune the coach’s support delay to user performance in previous exercises (the ‘Individualized’ approach). A prototype is evaluated in a 3-week within- and between-subjects experiment. Results show that the specified cognitive support is effective: Learners complete all exercises, interact meaningfully with the coach, and improve their online banking self-efficacy. Counter to hypotheses, the Individualized approach does not improve on the Generalized approach. Whether this indicates suboptimal operationalization or a deeper problem with the Individualized approach remains as future work. Keywords Virtual learning environment · Embodied conversational agent · Scaffolding · User modeling · Design research · Requirements engineering
* Dylan G. M. Schouten [email protected] 1
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
2
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
3
TNO Soesterberg, Soesterberg, The Netherlands
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1 Introduction People of low literacy struggle to independently participate in information societies (Buisman and Houtkoop 2014). Limited information (reading and writing) and communication (speaking and understanding) skills lead to participation issues, which can be cognitive, affective, or social in nature (Schouten et al. 2016). Cognitive issues relate to applying information and communication skills and possessing general knowledge about society. Affective issues relate to fear, shame, and low selfefficacy. Social issues relate to lack of motivation and trust in others. These issues can be addressed by providing societal participation learning that is grounded in crucial practical situations (real-life participation scenarios that involve the skills and knowledge needed to participate in society independently, such as online banking, grocery shopping, or engaging with local government; cf. Kurvers and van de Craats (2007); van de Craats (2007)), which allows low-literate learners to pract
