A quarter century of Culture's Consequences : a review of empirical research incorporating Hofstede's cultural values fr
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A quarter century of Culture’s Consequences: a review of empirical research incorporating Hofstede’s cultural values framework Bradley L. Kirkman1, Kevin B. Lowe2 and Cristina B. Gibson3 1 Department of Management, Mays Business School, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA; 2Department of Business Administration, Joseph M. Bryan School of Business and Economics, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina, USA; 3Graduate School of Management, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
Correspondence: Bradley L Kirkman, Department of Management, Mays Business School, Texas A&M University, 4221 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843-4221, USA. Tel: þ 1 979 845 8813; Fax: þ 1 979 845 9641; E-mail: [email protected]
Received: 22 August 2002 Revised: 8 May 2005 Accepted: 17 May 2005 Online publication date: 4 May 2006
Abstract Since Geert Hofstede’s Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in WorkRelated Values (Sage, 1980) was published, researchers have utilized Hofstede’s cultural values framework in a wide variety of empirical studies. We review 180 studies published in 40 business and psychology journals and two international annual volumes between 1980 and June 2002 to consolidate what is empirically verifiable about Hofstede’s cultural values framework. We discuss limitations in the Hofstede-inspired research and make recommendations for researchers who use Hofstede’s framework in the future. Journal of International Business Studies (2006) 37, 285–320. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400202 Keywords: Hofstede; cultural values; cross-cultural management
Introduction Research using a variety of frameworks has shown that national cultural values are related to workplace behaviors, attitudes and other organizational outcomes (e.g., Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, 1961; Hall, 1976; Hofstede, 1980a; Trompenaars, 1993; Schwartz, 1994; Ronen and Shenkar, 1985). Perhaps the most influential of cultural classifications is that of Geert Hofstede. Over two decades have passed since the publication of Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values (Hofstede, 1980a), inspiring thousands of empirical studies; however, a comprehensive review of the impact of Hofstede’s framework is lacking.1 To fill this gap, we summarize and synthesize empirical research published between January 1980 and June 2002 that has applied Hofstede’s framework to organizations. We focus on Hofstede’s framework rather than others, given evidence that it has had far greater impact (Sivakumar and Nakata, 2001). For example, the Social Science Citations Index indicates that Hofstede’s work is more widely cited than others (cited 1,800 times through 1999; Hofstede, 2001). Trompenaars (1993, iii), who has a competing framework, credits Hofstede ‘for opening management’s eyes to the importance of the [cross-cultural management] subject’. Our purpose is both to summarize existing research a
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