Anatomy and Physiology of the Farmed Animal
Most farmed animals have anatomical and physiological features that are in many ways similar to humans, but there are also important differences. This chapter assumes a basic understanding of mammalian structure and function and attempts to highlight the
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Anatomy and Physiology of the Farmed Animal Keith J. Ellis
Abstract Most farmed animals have anatomical and physiological features that are in many ways similar to humans, but there are also important differences. This chapter assumes a basic understanding of mammalian structure and function and attempts to highlight the differences, particularly as they relate to drug delivery and metabolism. There is a conscious bias towards ruminant livestock, as they represent a major sector of the farmed animal population, and are the group that differ most from the monogastrics. More reading will be required for the reader wishing to develop specific bioactive delivery technologies per se, but this chapter aims to provide a sufficient understanding of the environment into which the drug is being introduced, and an explanation of the relevance of the (sometimes) unusual modes of administration for the reader more interested in the benefits to be gained from the treatment of livestock.
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Introduction
Ever since man evolved from other life forms, he has relied on animals as a primary source of food and other useful products such as the skin, fiber, and bone. While the gathering of these products was once opportunistic, skills in animal husbandry have been acquired over time and the concept of “farming” animals has evolved alongside farming of various plant (vegetable) resources. “Farmed” animals can mean many things to different peoples—some cultures rely heavily on pigs, various poultry and aquatic species, and creatures like rabbits, dogs, kangaroos, and many more. These species are often referred to loosely as
K.J. Ellis (*) Ellis Consulting, 91 Pinegrove Road, Armidale, NSW 2350, Australia e-mail: [email protected] M.J. Rathbone and A. McDowell (eds.), Long Acting Animal Health Drug Products: Fundamentals and Applications, Advances in Delivery Science and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-4439-8_3, © Controlled Release Society 2013
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“monogastrics,” with added variations such as fore- or hindgut fermentation, or various other terminologies specific to a species. One of the largest groups of farmed animals is the ruminant. The common members of this class are sheep, cattle, goats, and deer, but there are many other herbivore species which have evolved along similar lines [1]. In simplest terms, ruminants are herbivores that have adapted a foregut digestive system to permit them to utilize the structural carbohydrates in plant materials as an efficient source of energy [2]. One of the major ways to achieve this is by supporting and maintaining a large and very active population of anaerobic microorganisms, together with the resultant enzyme products like hydrolases and cellulases, in a fermentation compartment at the anterior of the gut structure. It should also be understood that many other animals with differing degrees of fore- and hindgut fermentation [3] can be exploited by humans for food, but fewer of those have been farmed for that purpose in the traditional sense. Examples include various Afr
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