Biodeterioration of archaeological monuments of Taxila, Pakistan
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Biodeterioration of archaeological monuments of Taxila, Pakistan Muhammad Farooq
. Syeda Durre Maknoon
Received: 14 January 2019 / Accepted: 11 March 2020 Ó Springer Nature B.V. 2020
Abstract The present research was conducted to assess the role of aeromycoflora around world heritage sites of Taxila and its relation with biodeterioration of stone monuments. The aerial mycoflora of six archaeological sites was recorded for one year to monitor the seasonal variations and transportation of fungal spores. Thirty-two fungal species belonging to twenty genera were isolated throughout the whole sampling period. The fungal genera Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Mucor, Helminthosporium, Curvularia and Penicillium were prevalent, whereas at species level Alternaria alternata was dominant followed by Aspergillus niger, Cladosporium herbarum, Penicillium chrysogenum and Fusarium oxysporum. A well-marked qualitative and quantitative seasonal variation in aeromycoflora of selected sites was recorded. Some fungal species showed restricted occurrence to a specific archaeological site of Taxila. The comparative study of aerial and surface mycoflora revealed that dominant aerial fungal species were involved in biodeterioration of monuments. The chemical composition of fungal patinas and biofilm was also carried out, and it was found that calcite, gypsum and calcium oxalate were the main minerals detected by X-ray diffraction technique. The dominant fungal species were also determined for their ability to M. Farooq (&) S. D. Maknoon Department of Microbiology, University of Swabi, Swabi, KP, Pakistan e-mail: [email protected]
produce organic acids in broth medium. The fungal species produce a significant amount of citric acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, fumaric acid and gluconic acid. The different surface alterations of archaeological monuments of Taxila are due to the metabolic activities of fungal species growing on it. The present study is the first investigation about microbial decay of stone monuments of Taxila, and the results of this study will help to make a strategy for prevention of further biodeterioration of these monuments. Keywords Biodeterioration Aeromycoflora Archaeological monuments Taxila
1 Introduction The process of biodeterioration of stone monuments is a result of complex interactions among physical, chemical, biological and environmental factors. The metabolic activities of microorganisms growing on archaeological monuments appear in the form of colored patinas, biofilms and hard crust, and these alterations further lead to unavoidable loss of building materials (Dakal and Cameotra 2011; Griffin et al. 1991; Grossi et al. 2006; Ortega-Calvo et al. 1995). Fungi as decaying agent are more havoc than other microorganisms due to their metabolic activities on the surface of archaeological monuments. Mostly,
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Aerobiologia
fungal spores showed a rapid growth on organic materials like artifacts made by wood, mural
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