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advances in materials research Series Editor-in-Chief: Y. Kawazoe Series Editors: M. Hasegawa

A. Inoue

N. Kobayashi

T. Sakurai

L. Wille

The series Advances in Materials Research reports in a systematic and comprehensive way on the latest progress in basic materials sciences. It contains both theoretically and experimentally oriented texts written by leading experts in the f ield. Advances in Materials Research is a continuation of the series Research Institute of Tohoku University (RITU). 1

Mesoscopic Dynamics of Fracture Computational Materials Design Editors: H. Kitagawa, T. Aihara, Jr., and Y. Kawazoe

2

Advances in Scanning Probe Microscopy Editors: T. Sakurai and Y. Watanabe

3

Amorphous and Nanocrystalline Materials Preparation, Properties, and Applications Editors: A. Inoue and K. Hashimoto

4

Materials Science in Static High Magnetic Fields Editors: K. Watanabe and M. Motokawa

5

Structure and Properties of Aperiodic Materials Editors: Y. Kawazoe and Y. Waseda

6

Fiber Crystal Growth from the Melt Editors: T. Fukuda, P. Rudolph, and S. Uda

7

Advanced Materials Characterization for Corrosion Products Formed on the Steel Surface Editors: Y. Waseda and S. Suzuki

8

Shaped Crystals Growth by Micro-Pulling-Down Technique Editors: T. Fukuda and V.I. Chani

9

Nano- and Micromaterials Editors: K. Ohno, M. Tanaka, J. Takeda, and Y. Kawazoe

10

Frontiers in Materials Research Editors: Y. Fujikawa, K. Nakajima, and T. Sakurai

Yasunori Fujikawa Kazuo Nakajima Toshio Sakurai (Eds.)

Frontiers in Materials Research With 199 Figures

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Professor Yasunori Fujikawa Professor Kazuo Nakajima Professor Toshio Sakurai Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Series Editor-in-Chief: Professor Yoshiyuki Kawazoe Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan

Series Editors: Professor Masayuki Hasegawa Professor Akihisa Inoue Professor Norio Kobayashi Professor Toshio Sakurai Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan

Professor Luc Wille Department of Physics, Florida Atlantic University 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA

Advances in Materials Research ISSN 1435-1889 ISBN 978-3-540-77967-4

e-ISBN 978-3-540-77968-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008923541 © Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2008 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specif ically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microf ilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable to prosecu