Carbon footprint, renewable energy, non-renewable energy, and livestock: testing the environmental Kuznets curve hypothe
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Carbon footprint, renewable energy, non‑renewable energy, and livestock: testing the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for the Arab world Moataz Elshimy1 · Khadiga M. El‑Aasar1 Received: 8 May 2019 / Accepted: 11 November 2019 © Springer Nature B.V. 2019
Abstract The current study employs a different environmental impact indicator called “carbon footprint” rather than carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which several studies have been used neglecting methane (CH4) emissions. Therefore, it examines the relationship between carbon footprint, real income, energy by sources, and livestock in the Arab world for the period 1980–2014. A quadratic relation between carbon footprint and real income is found, supporting the hypothesis of environmental Kuznets curve (EKC). Furthermore, renewable energy is found to mitigate carbon footprint, although non-renewable energy and livestock contribute to it. A short-run unidirectional causal relationship is found running from renewable energy to carbon footprint and livestock, from non-renewable energy to carbon footprint and livestock, and from carbon footprint to real income and livestock. Regarding the long-run dynamics, bidirectional causal relationship between carbon footprint and nonrenewable energy is existed. Based on that, the paper suggests that renewable energy and sustainable food production and consumption patterns could be pivotal remedies in carbon footprint mitigation in Arab countries. Keywords Carbon footprint · Renewable energy · Fossil fuels · Livestock · EKC model · Arab world
1 Introduction Human impact on the climate system became obvious. Recent climate change has had diffuse effects on both ecological and human systems. Anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have grown since 1700s which led to concentrations of some gases like CO2 and CH4 in the atmosphere causing disastrous changes like warming the ocean, diminishing snow, and raising the global mean sea level. These events have been noticed since the midtwentieth century, indicating ecological and human systems sensitivity to climate changes. Global warming mitigation would require sustainable reduction in GHG emissions besides
* Moataz Elshimy [email protected] 1
Faculty of Economics and Political Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
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carbon offsetting activities (IPCC 2014). Many countries have signed the Kyoto Protocol, setting different reduction commitments to mitigate six types of GHGs which are carbon H4; nitrous oxide N 2O; hydrofluorocarbons HFCs; perfluorocardioxide CO2; methane C bons PFCs; and sulfur hexafluoride S F6, without a significant contribution by developing countries including the Arab nations (United Nations 1998). Although the Arab world contribution to the global climate change is not large, the region has the lion’s share of its impacts. Between 2006 and 2011, the Arab area culminated devastating droughts causing loss of life and migration. Moreover, between 2005 and 2014, 145 natural
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