Cosmic Update Dark Puzzles. Arrow of Time. Future History
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Multiversal Journeys
Founding Editor:
Farzad Nekoogar, President Multiversal Journeys
Editorial Advisory Board:
David Finkelstein, Georgia Institute of Technology Lawrence M. Krauss, Arizona State University Mark Trodden, University of Pennsylvania
For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/7919
Fred Adams Thomas Buchert Laura Mersini-Houghton Farzad Nekoogar Founding Editor
Cosmic Update Dark Puzzles. Arrow of Time. Future History
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Fred Adams Department of Physics Randall Laboratory University of Michigan Church Street 450 49109-1040 Ann Arbor Michigan USA [email protected]
Thomas Buchert Universit´e Lyon 1 Centre de Recherche Astrophysique de Lyon CNRS UMR 5574 9 avenue Charles Andr´e F-69230 Saint-Genis-Laval France [email protected]
Laura Mersini-Houghton Department of Physics and Astronomy University of North Carolina Chapel Hill North Carolina USA [email protected]
Founding Editor Farzad Nekoogar Multiversal Journeys 17328 Ventura Blvd. Encino, CA 91316 USA [email protected]
The article by Lawrence M. Krauss and Robert J. Scherrer is reproduced by permission of its copyright owner. Multiversal JourneysTM is a trademark of Farzad Nekoogar and Multiversal Journeys, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization ISBN 978-1-4419-8293-3 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-8294-0 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-8294-0 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London Library of Congress Control Number: 2011934680 c Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
To My Parents Farzad
Preface
Out for no reason this universe came to be Out of a place to be, this universe filled itself Rumi 1207–1273
Many cultures throughout the history including the Greeks, ancient Egyptians, Indians, Chinese, and Persians fascinated by the night sky studied stars and the heavens for centuries. However, the study of the cosmos in the form of classical scientific astronomy using mathematical descriptions is traced back to early seventh century AD. From seventh to fourteenth century, Persian mathematicians and astronomers Kharazmi (780–850), Biruni (973–1048), Khayyam (1048–1131), Tusi (1201–1274), and Kashani (1380–1429) each contributed a lot to the field of astronomy. Their contributions were further develope
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