How latency, action modality and display modality influence the sense of agency: a virtual reality study
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
How latency, action modality and display modality influence the sense of agency: a virtual reality study Paul Winkler1 · Philipp Stiens1 · Nadine Rauh1 · Thomas Franke1 · Josef Krems1 Received: 2 February 2018 / Accepted: 13 September 2019 © Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2019
Abstract The objective of this study was to investigate the influences of latency (i.e., technical system response time), action modality (button press, voice command) and display modality (head-mounted display, monitor) on the sense of agency (SOA). SOA is the experience of controlling one’s own actions and their corresponding effects in the environment. The N = 31 (48% female, with a mean age of 24) participants had to interact repeatedly with three different objects (lamp, tablet and computer) in a virtual environment (presented on a monitor or via a head-mounted display) by using a voice command or pressing a button to turn the objects on. The objects reacted after a specific technical system response delay (150, 450 and 750 ms). Results showed that the SOA was weaker for actions employing voice commands opposed to button presses, except for the explicit SOA in the monitor condition. Higher latencies diminished the explicit, but not the implicit SOA. Neither the explicit nor the implicit SOA was significantly affected by the display modality. The findings in part support the weighting process of different agency cues of the underlying framework, and we propose to extend this model by a sense of presence. Users seem to react as if they have the impression that they are not able to control the technical system properly if they interact through a voice command. Therefore, human–computer interface designers could take account of our findings regarding the modality of an action by providing additional feedback cues to increase the SOA for interactions with voice interfaces. Keywords Virtual reality · Sense of agency · Voice command · Latency · HMD · Human–computer interaction
1 Introduction When a human picks up a pen, it seems reasonable that the person’s mind commands the body to stoop, reach out and grab the pen. Therefore, the human is in control of that motion or, in other words, experiences agency. But what if the mind commands an action that is carried out by another body? For example, in a virtual reality (VR), the individual is represented by and acts through an avatar. The question of particular interest to us is: Do we claim agency over the actions carried out by a surrogate, even though one can argue that the avatar is the one who executes the action? The objective of this research was to investigate the influences of latency, action modality and * Paul Winkler paul.winkler@uni‑jena.de Philipp Stiens philipp.stiens@uni‑jena.de 1
Faculty of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Chemnitz University of Technology, 09107 Chemnitz, Germany
display modality on the sense of agency within a virtual environment.
1.1 The sense of agency According to Farrer et al. (2013), the term “sense of agency
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