Human gnathostomiasis: a neglected food-borne zoonosis
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Parasites & Vectors Open Access
REVIEW
Human gnathostomiasis: a neglected food‑borne zoonosis Guo‑Hua Liu1,2, Miao‑Miao Sun2, Hany M. Elsheikha3, Yi‑Tian Fu1, Hiromu Sugiyama4, Katsuhiko Ando5, Woon‑Mok Sohn6, Xing‑Quan Zhu7* and Chaoqun Yao8*
Abstract Background: Human gnathostomiasis is a food-borne zoonosis. Its etiological agents are the third-stage larvae of Gnathostoma spp. Human gnathostomiasis is often reported in developing countries, but it is also an emerging dis‑ ease in developed countries in non-endemic areas. The recent surge in cases of human gnathostomiasis is mainly due to the increasing consumption of raw freshwater fish, amphibians, and reptiles. Methods: This article reviews the literature on Gnathostoma spp. and the disease that these parasites cause in humans. We review the literature on the life cycle and pathogenesis of these parasites, the clinical features, epidemi‑ ology, diagnosis, treatment, control, and new molecular findings on human gnathostomiasis, and social-ecological factors related to the transmission of this disease. Conclusions: The information presented provides an impetus for studying the parasite biology and host immunity. It is urgently needed to develop a quick and sensitive diagnosis and to develop an effective regimen for the manage‑ ment and control of human gnathostomiasis. Keywords: Gnathostoma spp., Gnathostomiasis, Food-borne zoonosis Background Human gnathostomiasis, a food-borne zoonosis, is caused by the third-stage larvae (L3) of Gnathostoma spp. [1]. Humans are infected by these nematodes by consuming raw or undercooked fish, frogs, snakes or poultry that contain the L 3 [2]. The most common clinical signs and symptoms of the disease are migratory cutaneous swellings and eosinophilia. In severe cases, L3 also invade internal organs and tissues such as the liver, eyes, nerves, spinal cord and brain, which can result in blindness, nerve pain, paralysis, coma and even death [3].
*Correspondence: [email protected]; [email protected] 7 College of Veterinary Medicine, Shanxi Agricultural University, Taigu, Shanxi 030801, People’s Republic of China 8 Department of Biomedical Sciences and One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 334, Basseterre, St Kitts and Nevis Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
The first human case of gnathostomiasis was reported from Thailand in 1889, and was attributed to infection by Cheiracanthus siamensis (Levinseen 1889). Shortly afterwards, Leiper (1891) found that C. siamensis was morphologically identical to Gnathostoma spinigerum, and thus considered the former a synonym of the latter. However, the life cycle of G. spinigerum was not elucidated until 1936 [4]. To date, approximately 5000 cases of human gnathostomiasis have been reported worldwide, mainly from endemic areas in Japan and China, Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia, Mexico, and Colombia and Peru in South America [1, 3]. Gnathostom
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