Immigrant Generation, Race, and Socioeconomic Outcomes of Mothers in Urban Cities: Who Fares Better?
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Immigrant Generation, Race, and Socioeconomic Outcomes of Mothers in Urban Cities: Who Fares Better? Sherinah Saasa1 · Kaitlin P. Ward2 · Samantha W. Escamilla1
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020
Abstract Immigrants living in the United States tend to exhibit racially stratified outcomes, with greater socioeconomic disadvantage experienced by immigrants of color. However, few comparative studies have examined this relationship among multiple generations of immigrant women. This study compared first-, second-, and third-plus-generation immigrant mothers on seven socioeconomic outcomes. Data came from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Our sample consisted of 4056 first-, second-, and third-plus-generation immigrant mothers living in U.S. urban cities. Logistic, ordinal logistic, and linear regression analyses were conducted to predict socioeconomic outcomes. Among immigrants of color, increased generation status was associated with worse socioeconomic outcomes. Among White immigrants, generation status was largely unassociated with socioeconomic outcomes. Results underscore the need for increasing support for immigrants and their posterity. Further research is warranted investigating mechanisms that lead to racially stratified disadvantages as immigrant generation increases. Keywords Immigrant generation · Ethnicity · Integration · Mothers · Socioeconomic outcomes
Introduction In 2017, the U.S. foreign-born population was about 13.6% (44.4 million), with over one million immigrants entering the U.S. annually [1]. Immigrants pursue brief or extended residence abroad for numerous reasons, including financial security, educational opportunities, freedom from violence and oppression, and family reunification [2]. Immigrants and their children now constitute over a quarter of the U.S. population [3], and estimates suggest this proportion may rise to 36% by 2065 [4]. As the immigrant population rises and the U.S. birth rate drops [5], the U.S. labor force may become increasingly dependent on immigrants, particularly immigrants of color [1]. Therefore, it is important to ensure that immigrants are able to integrate into societal structures and the labor market. Successful integration largely depends on * Kaitlin P. Ward [email protected] 1
Brigham Young University School of Social Work, Provo, UT, USA
Department of Psychology, School of Social Work, University of Michigan, 1080 S University Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
2
immigrant participation in social institutions and acceptance by host communities [2]. Unfortunately, current U.S. studies point to racially stratified incorporation outcomes among immigrants of color, suggesting worsening socioeconomic outcomes with increasing generation status [3, 6, 7]. Socioeconomic exclusion of the foreign-born and their descendants could result in adverse outcomes that place an increased burden on the country. Alternatively, successful integration of immigrants could facilitate significant benefits
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