It Does Not Matter Who You Are: Fairness in Pre-schoolers Interacting with Human and Robotic Partners
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It Does Not Matter Who You Are: Fairness in Pre‑schoolers Interacting with Human and Robotic Partners C. Di Dio1,2 · F. Manzi1,2,3 · S. Itakura4 · T. Kanda5,6 · H. Ishiguro6,7 · D. Massaro1,2 · A. Marchetti1,2 Accepted: 5 February 2019 © Springer Nature B.V. 2019
Abstract The relationship between humans and robots is increasingly becoming focus of interest for many fields of research. The studies investigating the dynamics underpinning the human–robot interaction have, up to date, mainly analysed adults’ behaviour when interacting with artificial agents. In this study, we present results associated with the human–robot interaction involving children aged 5 to 6 years playing the Ultimatum Game (UG) with either another child or a humanoid robot. Assessment of children’s attribution of mental and physical properties to the interactive agents showed that children recognized the robot as a distinct entity compared to the human. Nevertheless, consistently with previous studies on adults, the results on the UG revealed very similar behavioural responses and reasoning when the children played with the other child and with the robot. Finally, by analysing children’s justifications for their behaviour at the UG, we found that children tended to consider “fair” only the divisions that were exactly equal (5–5 divisions), and to justify them either in quantitative terms (outcome) or in terms of equity. These results are discussed in terms of theory of mind, as well as in light of developmental theories underpinning children’s behaviour at the Ultimatum Game. Keywords Human–robot interaction · Children · Robot · Humanoid · Ultimatum Game · Theory of mind
1 Introduction
C. Di Dio and F. Manzi have contributed equally to the work. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s12369-019-00528-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
The introduction of social robots—defined as “autonomous or semi-autonomous robots that interact and communicate with humans by following the behavioural norms expected by the people with whom the robot is intended to interact” [5, p. 1]—is deeply affecting our society in different fields of human life. The robots used in industrial processes, for 1
C. Di Dio [email protected]
Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
2
S. Itakura [email protected]‑u.ac.jp
Human‑Robot Laboratory, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
3
T. Kanda [email protected]‑u.ac.jp
Institute of Psychology and Education, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
4
H. Ishiguro [email protected]‑u.ac.jp
Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
5
D. Massaro [email protected]
Human‑Robot Interaction Laboratory, Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto university, Kyoto, Japan
6
A. Marchetti [email protected]
Advanced Telecommunications Research In
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