Photocatalytic degradation of morphine, methamphetamine, and ketamine by illuminated TiO 2 and ZnO
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Photocatalytic degradation of morphine, methamphetamine, and ketamine by illuminated TiO2 and ZnO Cheng-Fang Lin • Ying-Jie Shiu • Chin-Sheng Kuo Angela Yu-Chen Lin • Chung-Hsin Wu • Pui-Kwan Andy Hong
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Received: 8 July 2013 / Accepted: 1 August 2013 / Published online: 13 August 2013 Ó Akade´miai Kiado´, Budapest, Hungary 2013
Abstract Methamphetamine, ketamine, and morphine, found in the influent and effluent of domestic treatment plants as well as in rivers, were selected as parent compounds in this study. This investigation examined the photocatalytic removal of methamphetamine, ketamine, and morphine, from municipal wastewater effluents using illuminated TiO2 and ZnO. HPLC–MS/MS was used to measure the concentration of these drugs during reactions. UV light of 254 nm alone is capable of destroying the drugs to some extent without the TiO2 or ZnO photocatalyst, while UV light of 365 nm must be coupled with the photocatalysts to be effective. UV light of 254 nm in the presence of 0.04 g/L of TiO2 was most effective, eliminating all three drugs within 5 min; ten times as much of ZnO were required to demonstrate comparable removal. Among the three tested drugs, morphine is most readily removed by the photocatalytic treatment. Keywords
Morphine Ketamine Methamphetamine TiO2 ZnO
Introduction Morphine and ketamine are controlled drugs and routinely dispensed at pharmacies and hospitals. However, their uses and particularly that of methamphetamine are not C.-F. Lin Y.-J. Shiu C.-S. Kuo A. Y.-C. Lin Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan C.-H. Wu (&) Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, 415 Chien Kung Road, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] P.-K. A. Hong Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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limited to medical needs but often abused [1–3]. In recent years, the occurrence and distribution of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) including controlled drugs have gained much attention due to their potential risk to aquatic lives particularly through bioaccumulation and biomagnification [4, 5]. Controlled substances enter the natural waterways with human metabolic wastes. From 2008, many developed countries began examining controlled drugs in surface waters and wastewater treatment plants. Van Nuijs et al. [6] investigated the occurrence of cocaine (COC) and its metabolite benzoylecgonine (BE) in municipal wastewaters and rivers of Belgium. They found as high as 115 ng/L of COC and 520 ng/L of BE in rivers, and 680 ng/L of COC and 550 ng/L of BE in the wastewater of treatment plants. In 2008, the daily loading rate of cocaine was 40–128 g/d to Brussel–Noord wastewater treatment plants, serving 850,000 inhabitants at 2–3 m3/s [7]. In South Wales, average daily loads of amphetamine and cocaine were 2.5 and 0.9 g/day/ 1,000 people,
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