Nicholas of Methone
Nicholas of Methone was a leading thinker of the twelfth century in Byzantium. He published a detailed refutation of Proclus’ Elements of Theology. He became concerned by the popularity of Proclus and acted as a defender of Christian Orthodoxy. Nicholas w
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ct Nas:¯ır al-Dı¯n Muh: ammad ibn Muh: ammad al-Tu¯sı¯ was born ˙ in 1201 in Tu¯s, in Khorasan, within a family of Twelver ˙ Shı¯ʿite allegiance. Philosopher, theologian, and author of about 150 works, he was considered a ‘‘third master,’’ after Aristotle and al-Fa¯ra¯bı¯. He was educated in Tu¯s and then he ˙ completed his education in Nı¯sha¯pu¯r, a highly reputed cultural center of his times, in Iraq and in Mosul. His studies included Arabic, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, law, religion, and natural sciences. Because of the Mongol invasion, he took refuge in Qu¯hista¯n’s fortresses, under the protection of the governor Nas:¯ır al-Dı¯n Muh: tashim. He then rapidly converted to the Isma¯ʿı¯lı¯ faith and completed his main philosophical treatises, among which was his commentary to Avicenna’s Isha¯ra¯t. After Alamu¯t’s fall, Tu¯sı¯ became vizier of Hu¯la¯g˙u¯, the ˙ Mongol commander. Thanks to Hu¯la¯g˙u¯’s patronage, Tu¯sı¯ ˙ established in Maragha the largest astronomical observatory of the times. He died in Baghdad in 1274 and was buried next to the seventh Shı¯ʿite Imam in a site near the city. Nas:¯ır al-Dı¯n al-Tu¯sı¯ is considered one of the most ˙ important figures of Islamic thinking. He was one of the most prolific scholars of the thirteenth century, and left his mark on most literary and scientific disciplines.
al-Tu¯sı¯, Nas:¯ır al-Dı¯n (Tu¯s 1201- Baghdad ˙ ˙ 1274) Nas:¯ır al-Dı¯n al-Tu¯sı¯, also known as khwa¯ja, is one of the ˙ most important figures in Islamic intellectual history. A philosopher, theologian, mathematician, and astronomer, he was honored with the title of ‘‘third teacher,’’ after Aristotle and al-Fa¯ra¯bı¯. He was educated at Tu¯s, in Khorasan, by his father, ˙ Muh: ammad ibn al-Hasan, a famous jurist of the Twelve ˙
Imam school of Shı¯ʿism, with whom he was initiated in religious and intellectual sciences. Tu¯sı¯ devoted himself to ˙ the study of Arabic language and grammar, to the reading of the Qurʾa¯n to hadı¯th, and Shı¯ʿite jurisprudence. With ˙ his maternal uncle he studied logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, and during the same period he was also taught algebra and geometry. Between 1213 and 1221, to complete his training, he moved to Nı¯sha¯pu¯r, where he earned an excellent reputation as a scholar. His most important teachers were Farı¯d al-Dı¯n al-Da¯ma¯d, with whom he studied the philosophy of Avicenna, and Qut:b al-Dı¯n al-Mis:rı¯, a disciple of Fakhr al-Dı¯n al-Ra¯zı¯, with whom he studied medicine. Subsequently, Tu¯sı¯ went to ˙ Ira¯q and studied jurisprudence with the Shı¯ʿite scholar Mu‘ı¯n al-Dı¯n Sa¯lim ibn Badra¯n al-Ma¯zinı¯; later on, he studied at Mosul with Kama¯l al-Dı¯n ibn Yu¯nus, with whom he improved his mathematical knowledge. Because of the Mongol invasion, which occurred while Tu¯sı¯ was ˙ completing his studies, he was forced to accept an invitation from the Isma¯ʿı¯lı¯ governor of Qu¯hista¯n, Nas:¯ır al-Dı¯n ‘Abd al-Rah: ¯ım ibn Abı¯ Mans:u¯r (or Nas:¯ır al-Dı¯n Muh: tashim), who presided over the business of the community of the Ni
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