Racial/Ethnic Group Differences
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The meaning of ‘‘race’’ has been long debated. The term is generally used to designate subgroups within a larger population, or even within all of humanity. Despite common usages, there are many variations in what the term ‘‘race’’ actually describes. Some believe race refers to biological characteristics reflected in an individual’s physical, mental, and behavioral traits. Others assert that race is a social-cultural construct encompassing historical, political, and cultural factors within American society. This latter view is held by the United States (U.S.) Census Bureau and the National Center for Educational Statistics, both of which adopted the U.S. Office of Management and Budget’s 1997 guidelines for data collection related to race and ethnicity data. For these agencies, race and ethnicity categories are based on social, cultural, and political definitions rather than biological, anthropological, or genetic criteria. Regardless of one’s perspective, classifying people on the basis of race is prevalent not only in society at large, but also in psychological and educational research, theory, and practice. The most widely accepted current racial classifications are used by the U.S. Census where people are asked to self-identify as White, Black or African American, American Indian/ Alaskan Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander, some other race, or two or more races. Importantly, the U.S. Census Department notes that the concept of race is different from that of Hispanic origin. However, although often used as a categorical variable, definitions for the term ‘‘race’’ are not as straightforward as mere categories for data collection, and the connotations and usages for ‘‘race’’ are numerous. Race can encompass genetic traits, nationality, history, geography, and lineage. Neither is the term ‘‘race’’ interchangeable with ‘‘ethnicity,’’ which refers to a shared history and culture, nor with ‘‘culture,’’ which refers to socially transmitted information (e.g., behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes). Indeed, ethnicity and culture may or may not be shared within a particular race, and people from multiple racial categories may share a common culture or ethnicity.
Construction of Race, Ethnicity, and Identity in the U.S. As noted, some posit that ‘‘race’’ is a socio-cultural construct rather than a biological category. Advocates of the socio-cultural position point out that over time in some societies such as the U.S., race as a cultural category has shifted to incorporate immigrant groups. For example, when Italians, Irish, and Eastern European Jews first arrived in America, they were viewed as ‘‘ethnic Whites’’ or ‘‘non-White.’’ Over time, these groups’ racial status changed to White. Yet, those who argue that race is a biological category counter that these groups were only able to transcend to White status because their physical characteristics resembled those of the accepted White race. African Americans, on the other hand, have not been able to easily cross racial categories in America. While this may
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