Setting the Stage for Trust and Strategic Integration in Japanese-U.S. Cooperative Alliances
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*Jean L. Johnson is Associate Professorof Marketingat WashingtonState University Her research interests include the development, management and strategic role of interfirm relationshipsand strategicalliancesin the firm. In additionto JIBS, her work has appeared in the Journal of Marketing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, and International Marketing Review.
**JohnB. Cullen is Professorof Managementand Systemsat WashingtonState University. His currentresearchfocuses on the managementstructureof internationalstrategicalliances and cross-culturalstudies of ethical climates.His work has appearedin three monographs, and numerousjournals includingJIBS, Administrative Science Quarterly, and Academy of Management Journal.
***TomoakiSakano is Professorof Managementat WasedaUniversity,Tokyo,Japan. His researchfocuses on organizationrestructuringand interfirmbuyer-sellerrelationshipin the Japanesemanufacturingand distributionsectors as well as strategicalliances.His research has appearedin the Journal of Marketing and Journal of Applied Psychology as well as JIBS. ****Hideyuki Takenouchi is a doctoral student at the Graduate School of Commerce, WasedaUniversity,Tokyo,Japan. His primaryresearchinterestsinclude strategicalliances and other internationalmanagementissues. 981
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JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, SPECIALISSUE 1996
International joint ventures (IJVs) are perhaps the most widely studied form of strategic alliance. However, a significant number of international strategic alliances do not involve the creation of separate legal entities as with the IJV. These alliances involve agreements to cooperate in joint activities such as codevelopment of a new product or technology, or marketing a new product or existing product to a new market. They span national boundaries and are most often based in one of the partner'shome country. Though not as observable as the IJV, international cooperative alliances (ICAs) offer an important means of doing business in the global economy. Despite the frequency with which the ICA occurs and its potential strategic value [Fortune1990], researchers often neglect the study of ICAs. Most of our understanding of international strategic alliances comes indirectly from the study of IJVs (e.g., Beamish [1984]; Hebert [1994]; Killing [1983]). However, the ICA differs on a variety of factors. The ICA offers a number of advantages and disadvantages, such as more flexibility, easier dissolution, a lower public profile and, therefore, a veil of competitive secrecy, reduced legal encumbrances, easier negotiation, and a more transient and less institutionalized relationship between partners, to name just a few. While IJV research provides many insights into ICAs, the uniqueness of the ICA demands additional research. To understand ICAs more thoroughly, we draw on the IJV and interfirm relationship literature as a starting
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