Ultra-Low Voltage Nano-Scale Memories

Ultra-Low Voltage Nano-Scale Memories provides an in-depth discussion of the state-of-the-art nanometer and sub-1-V memory LSIs that are playing decisive roles in power conscious systems. Emerging problems between the device, circuit, and system levels ar

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SERIES ON INTEGRATED CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS Anantha Chandrakasan, Editor Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA Published books in the series: Ultra-Low Voltage Nano-Scale Memories Kiyoo Itoh, Masashi Horiguchi, and Hitoshi Tanaka 2007, ISBN 978-0-387-33398-4 Routing Congestion in VLSI Circuits: Estimation and Optimization Prashant Saxena, Rupesh S. Shelar, and Sachin S. Sapatnekar 2007, ISBN 978-0-387-30037-5 Ultra-Low Power Wireless Technologies for Sensor Networks Brian Otis and Jan Rabaey 2007, ISBN 978-0-387-30930-9 Sub-threshold Design for Ultra Low-Power Systems Alice Wang, Benton H. Calhoun, and Anantha Chandrakasan 2006, ISBN 0-387-33515-3 High Performance Energy Efficient Microprocessor Design Vojin Oklibdzija and Ram Krishnamurthy (Eds.) 2006, ISBN 0-387-28594-6 Abstraction Refinement for Large Scale Model Checking Chao Wang, Gary D. Hachtel, and Fabio Somenzi 2006, ISBN 0-387-28594-6 A Practical Introduction to PSL Cindy Eisner and Dana Fisman 2006, ISBN 0-387-35313-5 Thermal and Power Management of Integrated Circuits Arman Vassighi and Manoj Sachdev 2006, ISBN 0-398-25762-4 Leakage in Nanometer CMOS Technologies Siva G. Narendra and Anantha Chandrakasan 2005, ISBN 0-387-25737-3 Statistical Analysis and Optimization for VLSI: Timing and Power Ashish Srivastava, Dennis Sylvester and David Blaauw 2005, ISBN 0-387-26049-8

Ultra-Low Voltage Nano-Scale Memories Edited by

KIYOO ITOH Hitachi, Ltd. Tokyo, Japan

MASASHI HORIGUCHI Renesas Technology Corp. Tokyo, Japan and

HITOSHI TANAKA Hitachi ULSI Systems Co., Ltd. Tokyo, Japan

Kiyoo Itoh Hitachi, Ltd. Tokyo, Japan

Masashi Horiguchi Renesas Technology Corp. Tokyo, Japan

Hitoshi Tanaka Hitachi ULSI Systems Co., Ltd. Tokyo, Japan

Ultra-Low Voltage Nano-Scale Memories Library of Congress Control Number: 2007920040 ISBN-13: 978-0-387-33398-4

e-ISBN-13: 978-0-387-68853-4

Printed on acid-free paper. © 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now know or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed in the United States of America. 9

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Preface

Ultra-low voltage nano-scale large-scale integrated circuits (LSIs) are becoming more important to ensure the reliability of miniaturized devices, to meet the needs of a rapidly growing mobile market, and to offset a significant increase in the power dissipation of high-end microproces