Determinants of the ecological footprint in Thailand: the influences of tourism, trade openness, and population density
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Determinants of the ecological footprint in Thailand: the influences of tourism, trade openness, and population density Nattapan Kongbuamai 1 & Muhammad Wasif Zafar 2 & Syed Anees Haider Zaidi 1 & Yun Liu 1,3 Received: 30 March 2020 / Accepted: 1 July 2020 # Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020
Abstract This paper investigates the impact of economic growth, energy consumption, tourism, trade openness, and population density on the ecological footprints in Thailand over the period from 1974 to 2016. We applied the augmented Dickey–Fuller and Zivot– Andrews unit root tests to check the stationary properties of the data. The ARDL bounding test approach and VECM Granger causality were used to investigate (i) the long-run and short-run effects and (ii) directions of such effects respectively. The longrun results showed that economic growth, energy consumption, and trade openness have positive relationships with the ecological footprint, while tourism and population density are negatively associated with the ecological footprint in Thailand. The results of VECM Granger causality confirmed that the bidirectional causality (i) between tourism and population density in the long run and (ii) between trade openness and population density in the short run. Furthermore, the unidirectional causality runs from the ecological footprint, economic growth, energy consumption, and trade openness to tourism and population density in the long run. The country policy combined with economic growth, energy consumption, tourism, international trade, and population density perspectives need to be revisited towards sustainable development by mitigating the effects of these variables on environmental depletion especially the ecological footprint. Keywords Tourism . Trade openness . Population density . Ecological footprint . ARDL
Introduction Along the country’s growth path, ecological quality depreciates speedily due to human consumption and activities. These growths of population, tourism, and economic activities result in continuing either direct resources and energy consumption or indirect disrupting life-sustaining ecosystems that will lead to environmental degradation (Remoundou and Koundouri 2009). The ecological footprint, proposed by Rees (1992), is widely used as a proxy for environmental degradation to determine the degree of environmental degradation in the current Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues * Yun Liu [email protected] 1
School of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
2
College of Management, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
3
School of Public Policy and Management, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
decade (Solarin and Bello 2018; Destek and Sarkodie 2019; Zafar et al. 2019). The ecological footprint is preferred because it represents an aggregate indicator that combines the process of both production and consumption activities (Solarin and Bello 2018; Ulucak and Bilgili 2018), while CO2 e
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