Electron Beam Analysis of Materials
The examination of materials using electron beam techniques has developed continuously for over twenty years and there are now many different methods of extracting detailed structural and chemical information using electron beams. These techniques which i
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ELECTRON BEAM ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS M. H. Loretto Professor of Materials Science University of Birmingham
LONDON NEW YORK
Chapman and Hall
First published 1984 by Chapman and Hall Ltd 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Published in the USA by Chapman and Hall 733 Third Avenue, New York NY 10017
© 1984 M.H. Loretto Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1984 Printed in Great Britain at the University Press, Cambridge ISBN-13: 978-94-010-8944-9
This title is available in both hardbound and paperback editions. The paperback edition is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted, or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Loretto, M.H. Electron beam analysis of materials. 1. Materials - Testing 2. Electron beams - Industrial applications I. Title 620.1 '12 TA410 ISBN-13: 978-94-010-8944-9
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Loretto, M.H. Electron beam analysis of materials. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Materials - Analysis. 2. Electron beamsIndustrial applications. 3. Electron microscopy. I. Title. TA417.23.L67 1984 84-11351 620.1'127 ISBN-13: 978-94-010-8944-9 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-5540-0 DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-5540-0
CONTENTS
Pr4'ace Acknowledgements 1 Introduction to electron beam instruments
l.l Introduction 1.2 Basic properties of electron emitters 1.3 Electron optics, electron lenses and deflection systems References 2 Electron-specimen interactions 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Elastically scattered electrons 2.3 Inelastically scattered electrons 2.4 Generation of X-rays 2.5 Generation of Auger electrons 2.6 Generation of electron beam induced current and cathodoluminescence signals References
Vll
viii
1 1
7 18 19
19 19 24 26 35 37 38
3 Layout and operational modes of electron beam instruments 3.1 Transmission electron microscopy 3.2 Scanning electron microscopy 3.3 Scanning transmission electron microscopy 3.4 Auger electron spectroscopy 3.5 Electron microprobe analysis 3.6 X-ray spectrometers 3. 7 Electron spectrometers References
39
4 Interpretation of diffraction information 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Analysis of electron diffraction patterns
65 65 65
39 44 50 53 56 57 61 64
vi
CONTENTS
4.3 Interpretation of diffraction maxima associated with phase transformations and magnetic samples 4.4 Interpretation of diffraction patterns from twinned crystals 4.5 Interpretation of channelling patterns and backscattered electron patterns in scanning electron micr
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