Human Land-Use and Soil Change
Soil change refers to the alteration of soil and soil properties over time in one location, as opposed to soil variability across space. Although soils change through natural processes (pedogenesis), this chapter focuses on human-caused soil change. Soil
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Skye A. Wills, Candiss O. Williams, Michael C. Duniway, Jessica Veenstra, Cathy Seybold, and DeAnn Presley
18.1
Introduction
Soil change is the central, if under-recognized, component of land and ecosystem changes (Yaalon 2007). Soils change naturally over a long timescale (decades to millennia) in response to soil-forming factors (biota, climate, parent material, time, and topography). However, human land-use pressures are currently the driving force in maintaining, aggrading, and degrading soil properties across nearly all ecosystems. Traditionally, in order to simplify and standardize the relationships between soils and soil-forming factors, pedology and soil survey have often focused on “natural” or “virgin” soil (e.g., Hilgard 1860; Jenny 1980), but many argue that humans should be thought of as a part of soil genesis and formation (Amundson and Jenny 1991; Yaalon and Yaron 1966; Bidwell and Hole 1965). Landscapes and soils have been altered by wide-scale conversion to agriculture, use of vegetative products, and development for direct human use. Land-use impacts can be gradual or abrupt, subtle, or catastrophic (Table 18.1). The interactions between environmental changes and geomorphic and biotic feedback loops vary across temporal and spatial scales depending on the setting (Monger and S.A. Wills (&) C.O. Williams C. Seybold USDA-NRCS, Lincoln, NE, USA e-mail: [email protected] C.O. Williams e-mail: [email protected] C. Seybold e-mail: [email protected] M.C. Duniway US Geological Survey, Moab, UT, USA e-mail: [email protected] J. Veenstra Flagler College, St. Augustine, FL, USA e-mail: [email protected]
Bestelmeyer 2006). The effects of land use can linger for decades to centuries and beyond (Hall et al. 2013; Jangid et al. 2011; Sandor et al. 1986). While each land resource region has some specific soil–land use interactions, this chapter will focus on general uses and topical areas: croplands, wetlands, grazing lands (both pasture and rangelands), and forest lands with smaller sections devoted to special issues including acid sulfate soils, strip-mined lands, and cold soils.
18.1.1
Concepts of Soil Change
Soil change refers to the variation of soil properties in one location over time. The concept of “soil change” has been proposed as a framework for understanding and documenting the impact of human use and management on soil properties and function (Arnold et al. 1990; Palm et al. 2007; Richter and Markewitz 2001; Robinson et al. 2012; Tugel et al. 2005, 2008). Management of soil resources, directly or indirectly, can alter soil properties and soil functions both negatively and positively. While all management (even its absence) impacts soil conditions, some impacts are intensive and site specific while others are extensive (Grigal 2000). The direction of change depends on the nature of the management, the goals of the management action, and the framework for measuring outcomes. While management actions to increase soil fertility might lead to improved soil func
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