Natural Purification Through Soils: Risks and Opportunities of Sewage Effluent Reuse in Sub-surface Irrigation
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ntents 1 Introduction 2 Policies and Guidelines Concerning Non-potable Water Reuse 2.1 Worldwide 2.2 Europe 3 STP Effluent Reuse in Agriculture 3.1 De Facto or Unintentional Reuse 3.2 Intentional Reuse 3.3 Public Perception 3.4 Irrigation Systems 4 Fate Processes of CoECs During SSI 4.1 Sorption and (Bio)transformation 4.2 Crop Uptake and Bioaccumulation
D. M. Narain-Ford (*) Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands KWR Water Research Institute, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] R. P. Bartholomeus KWR Water Research Institute, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands Soil Physics and Land Management, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] S. C. Dekker Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Department of Science, Faculty of Management, Science and Technology, Open University, Heerlen, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] A. P. van Wezel Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2020 Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2020_49
D. M. Narain-Ford et al. 5 Risk Assessment of SSI with STP Effluent 5.1 Exposure Assessment 5.2 Risk Assessment 6 Conclusion 7 Summary References
Abbreviations CoEC(s) EC EU FAO HQ IARC ISO IWA OECD PEC PNEC PTMB RQ SOM SSI STP TTC UN-Water USEPA WHO
Contaminant(s) of emerging concern European Commission European Union The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Hazard quotient International Agency for Research and Cancer International Organization for Standardization International Water Association Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Predicted environmental concentration Predicted no-effect concentration Persistent, toxic, mobile, or bio-accumulative Risk quotient Soil organic matter Sub-surface irrigation Sewage treatment plant Threshold of toxicological concern United Nations Water United States Environmental Protection Agency World Health Organization
1 Introduction Worldwide freshwater resources are under increasing stress, with a mismatch between demand and availability of water resources across both temporal and geographical scales (IWA 2018; UN-Water 2018). The main causes of freshwater resources being under stress are interlinked and include changes in water availability due to climate change, increases in water withdrawal for food security, and other economic activities. This was also analyzed with different socio-economic pathways indicating an increased global water withdrawal between 12 and 29% for 2050 compared to 2010 (Bijl et al. 2018), which will enhance prolonged dry periods (Chen et al. 2018). Increase in agricultural irrigation is currently one of the main global threats accounting for 69% of freshwater
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