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The Universe Today

Our Current Understanding and How It Was Achieved

Astronomers’ Universe

Series Editor Martin Beech, Campion College, The University of Regina, Regina, SK, Canada

The Astronomers’ Universe series attracts scientifically curious readers with a passion for astronomy and its related fields. In this series, you will venture beyond the basics to gain a deeper understanding of the cosmos—all from the comfort of your chair. Our books cover any and all topics related to the scientific study of the Universe and our place in it, exploring discoveries and theories in areas ranging from cosmology and astrophysics to planetary science and astrobiology. This series bridges the gap between very basic popular science books and higher-level textbooks, providing rigorous, yet digestible forays for the intrepid lay reader. It goes beyond a beginner’s level, introducing you to more complex concepts that will expand your knowledge of the cosmos. The books are written in a didactic and descriptive style, including basic mathematics where necessary.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6960

Carlos Martins

The Universe Today Our Current Understanding and How It Was Achieved

Carlos Martins Centro de Astrofísica da Universidade do Porto Porto, Portugal

ISSN 1614-659X ISSN 2197-6651 (electronic) Astronomers’ Universe ISBN 978-3-030-49631-9 ISBN 978-3-030-49632-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49632-6 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

You do not receive an education any more than you receive a meal. You seek it, order or prepare it, and assimilate and digest it for yourself. Frank Rh