Prevalence, Incidence, and Risk Factors for Tinnitus
How many people are affected by tinnitus? Is the risk of developing tinnitus on the rise or has it been declining over time? What modifiable lifestyle factors could help to prevent tinnitus? These population-based questions can be addressed through epidem
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Contents 1 Measures of Frequency 1.1 Prevalence 1.2 Incidence 1.3 Variability in the Estimates of Tinnitus Frequency 1.4 Estimates of Frequency for “Any Tinnitus” 1.5 Distinguishing “Severe Tinnitus” from “Any Tinnitus” 2 Measures of Effect 3 Observational Study Designs to Measure Frequency and Effect 3.1 Cross-Sectional Studies for Estimating Prevalence 3.2 Cohort Studies for Estimating Incidence and Risk 3.3 Case-Control Studies for Estimating Risk 4 Some Examples of Risk Factors for Developing Tinnitus 4.1 Hearing Loss or Hearing Difficulty 4.2 Age 4.3 Sex 4.4 Lifestyle 5 Future Directions 6 Synopsis of Key Points References
R. Biswas Hearing Sciences, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy D. A. Hall (*) Hearing Sciences, Division of Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK NIHR Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham, UK Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust, Nottingham, UK University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 Curr Topics Behav Neurosci https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2020_154
R. Biswas and D. A. Hall
Abstract How many people are affected by tinnitus? Is the risk of developing tinnitus on the rise or has it been declining over time? What modifiable lifestyle factors could help to prevent tinnitus? These population-based questions can be addressed through epidemiological research. Epidemiology refers to the underlying and basic science of public health. It describes the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations and the application of this study to the control of health problems. There are two key concepts in epidemiology: (1) measures of frequency and (2) measures of effect. In this chapter, we introduce the two main measures of frequency, prevalence and incidence. We also introduce the notion of risk factors, critical for understanding measures of effect concerning the risk of developing a health condition. In both sections, we provide illustrative examples from the published literature on tinnitus. We end by offering a critical evaluation of the current status of epidemiological research on tinnitus and point to some promising future directions. Keywords Incidence · Measures of effects · Population · Prevalence · Risk factors
1 Measures of Frequency Measures of frequency describe how common a condition is, in reference to the size of the population (i.e., the population at risk of developing the condition) and some defined measure of time.
1.1
Prevalence
Prevalence considers all cases of tinnitus, i.e., both new and preexisting cases (Fig. 1). Percent prevalence ¼
ðAll cases ðnew and pre-existingÞat a given period of timeÞ ðTotal population at the same time periodÞ 100
For example, in a sample of 100,000 people studies, 5,000 rep
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