Empowering Low-Cost CMOS Cameras by Image Processing to Reach Comparable Results with Costly CCDs
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Empowering Low-Cost CMOS Cameras by Image Processing to Reach Comparable Results with Costly CCDs G¨ozen K¨oklu¨ · Julien Ghaye · Ralph Etienne-Cummings · Yusuf Leblebici · Giovanni De Micheli · Sandro Carrara
Published online: 20 September 2013 © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract Despite the huge research effort to improve the performance of the complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) still dominate the cell biology-related conventional fluorescence microscopic imaging market where low or ultra-low noise imaging is required. A detailed comparison of the sensor specifications and performance is usually not provided by the manufacturers which leads the end users not to go out of the habitude and choose a CCD camera instead of a CMOS one. However, depending on the application, CMOS cameras, when empowered by image processing algorithms, can become cost-efficient solutions for conventional fluorescence microscopy. In this paper, we introduce an application-based comparative study between the default CCD camera of an inverted microscope (Nikon TiS Eclipse) and a custom-designed CMOS camera and apply efficient image processing algorithms to improve the performance of CMOS cameras. Quantum micro-bead samples (emitting fluorescence light at different intensity levels), breast cancer diagnostic tissue cell samples, and Caco-2 cell samples are imaged by both CMOS and CCD cameras. The results are provided to show the reliability of CMOS camera processed images and finally to be of assistance when scientists select their cameras for desired applications. G. K¨okl¨u () · J. Ghaye · G. De Micheli · S. Carrara Integrated Systems Laboratory (LSI), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] G. K¨okl¨u · Y. Leblebici Microelectronic Systems Laboratory (LSM), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland R. Etienne-Cummings Computational Sensory-Motor Systems Lab, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
Keywords Fluorescence microscopy cameras · CMOS camera · CCD camera · CCD vs CMOS · CMOS image sensor · CCD image sensor
1 Introduction Historically, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) have dominated the imaging sensor market. Today, the market share for complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors is increasing and even surpassing CCDs in terms of volume [1]. However, CCDs are still the dominating technology for high-quality imaging market and are used for high-cost imaging applications such as microscopy for life and material science applications in both clinical and educational domains. In the literature, there are many examples on the use of CCD cameras for detecting fluorescent labeled deoxyribonucleic acid (DNAs) or some expressions on the stained, fixed, or live cells. Some examples to that is imaging of growing DNA chains [2]; real-time detection of DNA hybridization to DNA microarrays [3]; monitoring of anticancer effects of some specific agents [4]; examining of cell polari
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