Recent advances in graphite powder-based electrodes
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REVIEW
Recent advances in graphite powder-based electrodes Dolores Bellido-Milla & Laura Ma Cubillana-Aguilera & Mohammed El Kaoutit & Ma Purificación HernándezArtiga & José Luis Hidalgo-Hidalgo de Cisneros & Ignacio Naranjo-Rodríguez & José Ma Palacios-Santander
Received: 9 November 2012 / Revised: 24 January 2013 / Accepted: 1 February 2013 / Published online: 28 February 2013 # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
Abstract Graphite powder-based electrodes have the electrochemical performance of quasi-noble metal electrodes with intrinsic advantages related to the possibility of modification to enhance selectivity and their easily renewable surface, with no need for hazardous acids or bases for their cleaning. In contrast with commercial electrodes, for example screen-printed or sputtered-chip electrodes, graphite powder-based electrodes can also be fabricated in any laboratory with the form and characteristics desired. They are also readily modified with advanced materials, with relatively high reproducibility. All these characteristics make them a very interesting option for obtaining a large variety of electrodes to resolve different kinds of analytical problems. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art, advantages, and disadvantages of graphite powder-based electrodes in electrochemical analysis in the 21st century. It includes recent trends in carbon paste electrodes, devoting special attention to the use of emergent materials as new binders and to the development of other composite electrodes. The most recent advances in the use of graphite powder-modified sol–gel electrodes are also described. The development of sonogel–carbon electrodes and their use in electrochemical sensors and biosensors is included. These materials extend the possibilities of applications, especially for industrial technology-transfer purposes, and their development could affect not only electroanalytical
Published in the topical collection Amperometric Sensing with guest editors Renato Seeber, Fabio Terzi, and Chiara Zanardi. D. Bellido-Milla : L. M. Cubillana-Aguilera : M. El Kaoutit : M. P. Hernández-Artiga : J. L. Hidalgo-Hidalgo de Cisneros (*) : I. Naranjo-Rodríguez : J. M. Palacios-Santander Departamento de Química Analítica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz, C/ Republica Saharaui S/N, 11510 Puerto Real, Cadiz, Spain e-mail: [email protected]
green chemistry but other interesting areas also, for example catalysis and energy conversion and storage. Keywords Graphite powder . Composite materials . Carbon paste . New binders . Sol–gel . Sonogel–carbon . Modified electrodes . Applications
Introduction Modern electroanalytical methods are applicable to both electroactive and electrochemically inert compounds. This expansion of the applicability of electrochemical transduction enables electroanalytical technology to have an impact in almost all the fields of science, for example clinical diagnostics, food quality control, security, and environmental analysis. A general method of preparation of electroanalytical
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