Quantifying Capsaicinoids from Chili Pepper and Motor Oil Mixtures Used in Elephant Deterrent Fences
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Quantifying Capsaicinoids from Chili Pepper and Motor Oil Mixtures Used in Elephant Deterrent Fences R. L. Von Hagen1,3 · P. Norris2 · B. A. Schulte1 Received: 3 April 2020 / Revised: 25 June 2020 / Accepted: 3 July 2020 © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020
Abstract Human–elephant conflicts continue to escalate as African elephants (Loxodonta africana) attempt to forage on cultivated crops. Chili pepper fencing is used as a deterrent but has varying success rates. These fences are constructed with crushed chili peppers, typically mixed in motor oil, placed on cloths, and strung around crop fields. This mixture is made using different formulas involving oil and sometimes water, but each takes advantage of the “heat” and discomfort produced from capsaicinoids, the active ingredients in chili peppers. Using LC–MS technology, we examined some of these formulas and preparation methods. The development of this methodology is to our knowledge the first time this type of analysis has been conducted with chili and motor oil mixtures. By examining the differences in Scoville Heat Units (SHU), we confirmed that mixing with oil played an important role and that the SHU was no different by boiling crushed chilis in water before combining with oil compared to directly combining the crushed peppers with oil. Allowing the crushed peppers to remain in the mixture rather than filtering before mixing showed only a slight benefit. This LC–MS methodology provides a new tool for conservationists to compare the efficacy of chili fence formulas, which may allow for improvement of this deterrent method via further field testing. Keywords Behavioral ecology · Capsaicinoids · Conservation · Human–elephant conflict · LC–MS
Introduction In Kenya, crop raiding is a prominent form of human-elephant conflict [1–3]. Elephants move from areas of refuge, such as national parks, into small shareholder farms to seek supplements to their natural forage by consuming cultivated crops. Extensive foraging by elephants can compromise farmer livelihoods, and farmers may retaliate by attempting to harm elephants, threatening the coexistence of both parties [4, 5]. In both Asia and Africa, crushed chili peppers have been combined with used engine oil in a mixture soaked into cloths and hung on ropes as fencing to deter elephants from * R. L. Von Hagen [email protected]; [email protected] 1
Biology Department, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101, USA
2
Advanced Materials Institute, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101, USA
3
School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
crop raiding. This deterrent is commonly referred to as a chili fence [6–8]. Chili peppers contain capsaicinoids [9, 10], which stimulate the trigeminal nerve, triggering watering eyes, mucous production, and general respiratory discomfort in mammals [11, 12]. Capsaicinoids are most soluble in oils [13, 14] as these compounds are hydrophobic molecules and h
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