Spatial analysis of urine zinc (Zn) concentration for women of reproductive age and school age children in Malawi
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Spatial analysis of urine zinc (Zn) concentration for women of reproductive age and school age children in Malawi Felix P. Phiri . E. Louise Ander . R. Murray Lark . Edward J. M. Joy . Alexander A. Kalimbira . Parminder S. Suchdev . Jellita Gondwe . Elliott M. Hamilton . Michael J. Watts . Martin R. Broadley
Received: 2 April 2020 / Accepted: 18 August 2020 Ó The Author(s) 2020
Abstract Zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient, and Zn deficiency remains a major global public health challenge. Recognised biomarkers of population Zn status include blood plasma or serum Zn concentration and proxy data such as dietary Zn intake and prevalence of stunting. Urine Zn concentration is rarely used to assess population Zn status. This study assessed the value of urine Zn concentration as a biomarker of population Zn status using a nationally representative sample of non-pregnant women of Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00700-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
reproductive age (WRA) and school-aged children (SAC) in Malawi. Spot (casual) urine samples were collected from 741 WRA and 665 SAC. Urine Zn concentration was measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry with specific gravity adjustment for hydration status. Data were analysed using a linear mixed model with a spatially correlated random effect for between-cluster variation. The effect of time of sample collection (morning or afternoon), and gender (for SAC), on urine Zn concentration were examined. There was spatial dependence in urine Zn concentration between clusters among SAC but not WRA, which indicates that food system or environmental factors can influence
F. P. Phiri (&) R. M. Lark M. R. Broadley School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Loughborough, Leicestershire LE12 5RD, UK e-mail: [email protected]
E. L. Ander E. M. Hamilton M. J. Watts Inorganic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, British Geological Survey, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK e-mail: [email protected]
R. M. Lark e-mail: [email protected]
E. M. Hamilton e-mail: [email protected]
M. R. Broadley e-mail: [email protected]
M. J. Watts e-mail: [email protected]
F. P. Phiri Department of Nutrition, HIV and AIDS, Ministry of Health, P. Bag B401, Lilongwe, Malawi
E. J. M. Joy Faculty of Epidemiology and Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK e-mail: [email protected]
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Environ Geochem Health
urine Zn concentration. Mapping urine Zn concentration could potentially identify areas where the prevalence of Zn deficiency is greater and thus where further sampling or interventions might be targeted. There was no evidence for differences in urine Zn concentration between gender (P = 0.69) or time of sample collection (P = 0.85) in SAC. Urine Zn concentration was great
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