The gut mycobiome: a novel player in chronic liver diseases
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REVIEW
The gut mycobiome: a novel player in chronic liver diseases Lu Jiang1,2 • Peter Sta¨rkel3 • Jian-Gao Fan4 • Derrick Eugene Fouts5 Petra Bacher6,7 • Bernd Schnabl1,2
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Received: 27 September 2020 / Accepted: 15 October 2020 The Author(s) 2020
Abstract The human gut microbiome (bacteria, fungi, viruses, and archaea) is a complex and diverse ecosystem. It plays an important role in human health, but is involved in several intestinal and extraintestinal diseases. Most research to date has focused on the role of bacteria, while studies focusing on fungi (also referred to as ‘‘mycobiome’’ or ‘‘fungome’’) are still in its infancy. In this review, we focus on the existing literature available about the gut mycobiome with an emphasis on compositional mycobiome changes associated with liver diseases, the impact on pathogenesis of disease, and its potential use as therapeutic targets. We also provide insights into current methodologies of studying mycobiome, and we highlight the interkingdom interactions in the context of disease and how they affect health of the host. Herein, by focusing on the gut mycobiome, this review provides novel insights and directions for liver research. & Bernd Schnabl [email protected] 1
Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, MC0063, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
2
Department of Medicine, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
3
Cliniques Universitaires Saint Luc, Universite´ Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
4
Department of Gastroenterology, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
5
Department of Genomic Medicine, J. Craig Venter Institute, Rockville, MD, USA
6
Institute of Immunology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel and UKSH Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel, Germany
7
Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Christian-AlbrechtsUniversity of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
Keywords Fungi Microbiome Fungome Alcoholassociated liver disease Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease Abbreviations ALD Alcohol-associated liver disease AUD Alcohol use disorder NAFLD Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease NASH Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis PSC Primary sclerosing cholangitis HCC Hepatocellular carcinoma ITS Internal transcribed spacer PCR Polymerase chain reaction AhR Aryl hydrocarbon receptor CD Crohn’s disease PAMP Pathogen-associated-molecular-pattern ASCA Anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies S. cerevisiae Saccharomyces cerevisiae CLEC7A C-type lectin-like receptor 7a ECE1 Extent of cell elongation 1 S. boulardii Saccharomyces boulardii VAP-1 Vascular adhesion protein-1 IL Interleukin IBD Inflammatory bowel disease MELD Model for end-stage liver disease HBV Hepatitis B virus E. faecalis Enterococcus faecalis C. difficile Clostridium difficile
123
J Gastroenterol
Introduction The human gastrointestinal tract harbors trillions of microbes such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and archaea [1, 2]. The gut microbiome may contribute to host metabolism, health, and disease [3]. Over the past decades, ext
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