American Indian and Alaska Native and Chinese Ethnic Minority Higher Education: Evolution, Characteristics, and Challeng
To better understand American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) and Chinese Ethnic Minority (CEM) higher education, it is necessary to go through their histories and policies because they are relevant to the formation and development of Tribal Colleges and
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American Indian and Alaska Native and Chinese Ethnic Minority Higher Education: Evolution, Characteristics, and Challenges
To better understand AIAN and CEM HE, it is necessary to go through their histories and policies because they are relevant to the formation and development of TCUs in the United States and EMSIs in China. This chapter reviews the literature in three primary sections, first by examining the history of AIAN HE since the colonial era and the policies of CEM HE from 1949. Next is an overview of the characteristics of AIAN and CEM HE to provide the foundational contexts in which TCUs and EMSIs currently operate. Finally, this chapter summarizes the common challenges faced by TCUs and EMSIs.
3.1 Evolution of American Indian and Alaska Native and Chinese Ethnic Minority Higher Education 3.1.1 Evolution of American Indian and Alaska Native Higher Education The evolution of American Indian HE can be divided into three eras: the colonial era, the federal era, and the self-determination era1 (Carney 1999; McClellan et al. 2005). The colonial era starting from the discovery of the © The Author(s) 2020 W. Xiong, Ethnic Minority-Serving Institutions, International and Development Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55792-8_3
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new world by Columbus in 1492 to the foundation of the United States in 1776, featuring the colonial college missions but failed efforts for American Indians. In the federal era from 1776 to the 1960s, AIAN HE was widely ignored by federal and state governments except for some tribal, private, and religious efforts. At last, the self-determination era, beginning in 1968 and was characterized by the foundation of tribally controlled colleges and universities (Carney 1999). 3.1.1.1 The Colonial Era, 1492–1776 After Jamestown colony citizens planned to establish Henrico College—a higher learning institution for American Indians that failed in 1622 because of a tribal uprising—many European colonists formed a belief that American Indians could be indoctrinated into white Christianity and culture through education (Patterson 2015). However, this notion of providing HE opportunities to American Indians also had other, sometimes unintended consequences, including deculturalization and assimilation (Chambers 2016). This belief has remained consistent for many US colonists and essentially served as the central strategy of federal government policies on Native American education until the 1930s. Among the nine US colleges2 founded during the colonial period, Harvard College, the College of William and Mary, and Dartmouth College incorporated the education for American Indians into their missions (College of William and Mary 2017; Dartmouth College 1769; Harvard University 1650). For example, Dartmouth College (1769) stated its purpose was “for the education and instruction of youth of the Indian tribes in this land in reading, writing, and all parts of learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for civilizing and Christianizing children of pagans, as w
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