Fouling Analysis and the Recovery of Phytosterols from Orange Juice Using Regenerated Cellulose Ultrafiltration Membrane
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Fouling Analysis and the Recovery of Phytosterols from Orange Juice Using Regenerated Cellulose Ultrafiltration Membranes Nurul Hainiza Abd-Razak 1,2 & M. N. Zairossani 2 & Y. M. John Chew 1 & Michael R. Bird 1 Received: 11 June 2020 / Accepted: 7 October 2020 / Published online: 15 October 2020 # The Author(s) 2020
Abstract This study describes the use of regenerated cellulose (RCA) membranes with molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) values of 10, 30, and 100 kDa, respectively, to separate phytosterols from orange juice for possible nutraceutical production. A desirable membrane separation rejects protein whilst transmitting phytosterols and other low molecular mass compounds such as sugars. The ultrafiltration was performed in a cross-flow membrane system with a total filtration area of 336 cm2. Total phytosterol analysis was carried out by using a Liebermann-Buchard-based method. Protein concentration was quantified by the Bradford method. The effects of three different membranes upon the rejection of total phytosterol content, proteins, sugar, and antioxidant activity were studied. Of the membranes tested, the 10-kDa membrane displayed the highest concentration of phytosterols in the permeate. The 30-kDa and 100-kDa membranes gave comparatively higher phytosterol rejection. The membrane surface roughness and corresponding pure water flux values varied as a function of MWCO such that RCA30 > RCA100 > RCA10. Membranes with rougher surfaces displayed higher fouling than those with smoother surfaces. Hydrophobicity and surface roughness both influenced filtration performance, by controlling the development of the protein-based foulant which modified membrane selectivity. Keywords Fouling . Membrane selectivity . Water flux . Surface roughness . Hydrophobicity
Introduction Plant sterols, generally known as phytosterols, are cholesterollike compounds that are found mostly in vegetable oils, nuts, and fruits (Wang et al. 2018). The structure is related to cholesterol but differs in the structure of the side chain. Phytosterols consist of a steroid skeleton with a hydroxyl group attached to the C-3 atom of the A-ring. The most common phytosterols are stigmasterol and β-sitosterol. Commercial phytosterols were isolated mostly from soybean oil. Stigmasterol has a molecular weight of 412 g mol−1 with elemental formula C29H48O. For β-sitosterol, the elemental formula is C29H50O with a molecular weight of 414 g mol−1 (Kongduang et al. 2012; McDonald et al. 2012). Phytosterols
* Michael R. Bird [email protected] 1
Centre of Advanced Separations Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
2
Malaysian Rubber Board, Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, PO Box 10150, 50908 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
are widely used as food additives due to their ability to lower human cholesterol levels (Marangoni and Poli 2010). Phytosterols are also known for their anticancer properties by inhibiting the progression of the cancer cell cycle (Shahzad et al. 2017). The global market si
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