Neural-Symbolic Cognitive Reasoning

Humans are often extraordinary at performing practical reasoning. There are cases where the human computer, slow as it is, is faster than any artificial intelligence system. Are we faster because of the way we perceive knowledge as opposed to the way we r

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Advisory Board: Luigia Carlucci Aiello Franz Baader Wolfgang Bibel Leonard Bolc Craig Boutilier Ron Brachman Bruce G. Buchanan Anthony Cohn Artur d’Avila Garcez Luis Fariñas del Cerro Koichi Furukawa Georg Gottlob Patrick J. Hayes James A. Hendler Anthony Jameson Nick Jennings Aravind K. Joshi Hans Kamp Martin Kay Hiroaki Kitano Robert Kowalski Sarit Kraus Maurizio Lenzerini Hector Levesque John Lloyd

Alan Mackworth Mark Maybury Tom Mitchell Johanna D. Moore Stephen H. Muggleton Bernhard Nebel Sharon Oviatt Luis Pereira Lu Ruqian Stuart Russell Erik Sandewall Luc Steels Oliviero Stock Peter Stone Gerhard Strube Katia Sycara Milind Tambe Hidehiko Tanaka Sebastian Thrun Junichi Tsujii Kurt VanLehn Andrei Voronkov Toby Walsh Bonnie Webber

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Artur S. d Avila Garcez · Lu´ıs C. Lamb Dov M. Gabbay

Neural-Symbolic Cognitive Reasoning

With 53 Figures and 6 Tables

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Authors: , Dr. Artur S. d Avila Garcez Reader in Computing Department of Computing School of Informatics City University London London EC1V 0HB, UK [email protected] Dr. Lu´ıs C. Lamb Associate Professor Institute of Informatics Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre, RS, 91501-970, Brazil [email protected], [email protected]

Managing Editors: Prof. Dov M . Gabbay Augustus De Morgan Professor of Logic Department of Computer Science King’s College London Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK

Prof. Dr. Jörg Siekmann Forschungsbereich Deduktions- und Multiagentensysteme, DFKI Stuhlsatzenweg 3, Geb. 43 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany

Prof. Dov M. Gabbay Augustus De Morgan Professor of Logic Department of Computer Science , King s College London Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK [email protected]

ISBN: 978-3-540-73245-7 e-ISBN: 978-3-540-73246-4 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-73246-4 Cognitive Technologies ISSN: 1611-2482 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008935635 ACM Computing Classification (1998): F.1.1, F.4.1, I.2.3, I.2.4, I.2.6 c 2009 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg  This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: KünkelLopka, Heidelberg Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com

To Simone, for giving me our little Max (AAG). To Desir´ee (LCL). To Lydia (DMG).

Preface

This book is about neural computation and applied reasoning, and ab