Surface Water
Next to air, water is the most essential of human requirements. The hydrosphere-the waters of the Earth, its oceans, rivers and lakes-is vital, constituting a feature unique in the solar system and one responsible for physical and climatic phenomena chara
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SURFACE WATER
ROBERT BOWEN Ph.D., B.Sc. Professor and Head, Department ql Geology, The University of Sierra Leone, Freetown, Sierra Leone
APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD LONDON
APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD RIPPLE ROAD, BARKING, ESSEX, ENGLAND
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Bowen, Robert Surface water. 1. Water I. Title 551.48 GB980 ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-3920-5 001: 10.1007/978-1-4613-3918-2
e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-3918-2
WITH 44 TABLES AND 32 ILLUSTRATIONS
,0 APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD 1982 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1982
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers, Applied Science Publishers Ltd, Ripple Road, Barking, Essex, England
Contents
INTRODUCTION Chapter 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5.
1. THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE Some Preliminary Observations on Water Hydrology. The Hydrologic Cycle. Some Basic Principles of Hydrology Terrain Hydrology 1.5.1. Arid and semi-arid terrains. 1.5.2. Limestone terrains 1.5.3. Coastal terrains . Change in the Hydrologic Cycle. 1.6. Wastage in the Hydrologic Cycle 1.7. 1.8. The International Hydrologic Decade. 1.9. The United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade . 1.10. Drought, a Disruption in the Hydrologic Cycle 1.11. Isotopes in the Hydrologic Cycle. 1.12. The Global Water Balance.
Chapter 2. THE ATMOSPHERE 2.1. Energy in the Atmosphere 2.2. Atmospheric Moisture 2.2.1 Stable isotopes v
3 3 6 6 11 13 13 15 16 22 24 26 27 32 37 44
51 51 54 59
CONTENTS
VI
2.3. 2.4.
2.5. 2.6. 2.7. 2.8.
2.9. 2.10.
2.2.2. Unstable isotopes Environmental Isotopes in Hydrometeorology Circulation in the Atmosphere Measurement of Precipitation Measurement of Evaporation Gauging of Snow. Atmospheric Water in Soil Erosion Wind and Pressure The Earth and its Atmosphere
Chapter 3. RIVERS. 3.1. Rates of Flow and Discharge of Rivers 3.1.1. Constant rate injection method 3.1.2. Integration method 3.2. The Basin Hydrologic Cycle 3.3. Basin Morphometry 3.4. River Load . 3.5. River Erosion Studies 3.6. The Forms of Channels 3.7. Flood Hazards 3.8. Water Movement through Soil
Chapter 4. LAKES AND OTHER SURF ACE WATER MANIFEST A nONS. 4.1. General Characteristics of Lakes. 4.l.1. Tectonic Lakes 4.1.2. Glacial Lakes 4.1.3. Volcanic Lakes 4.2. Dynamics of Lakes and Reservoirs Leakages from Lakes and Reservoirs 4.3. 18 0 and D Concentrations with Reference to the 4.4. Water Balance of Lakes The Total Lake Water Resources of the Earth 4.5. 4.6. Springs. Snow Packs and Glaciers 4.7.
60 66 75 78 81
90 93
95 99 103 103
105 106 117
123 129 141 143 146 151
159 159 160 161 161 164
165 174
183 187
192
CONTENTS
vii
Chapter 5. THE OCEANS 5.1. Seas and Oceans . 5.2. Structure of Oceanic Basins. 5.2.1. Seismic refraction 5.2.2. Gravity measurements 5.3. Oceanic Circulation 5.4. Other Motions in the Oceans 5.4.1. Tides . 5.4.
