Assessment of spring water quality in Jhimruk River Watershed, Lesser Himalaya, Nepal
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Assessment of spring water quality in Jhimruk River Watershed, Lesser Himalaya, Nepal Bhumika Thapa1,2 · Ramesh Raj Pant1 · Sudeep Thakuri1 · Gregory Pond3 Received: 2 July 2020 / Accepted: 14 October 2020 © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020
Abstract Springs are primary water sources for drinking and sanitation in rural households of mountainous areas and are ecologically important as they provide habitat to diverse macroinvertebrate assemblages. This study assesses the spring sources to clarify concerns about the quality and safety of this water used for human use, as well as the condition of the biological habitat in the Jhimruk River Watershed (JRW), Nepal. Spring sources were mapped and samples of water and benthic macroinvertebrates were analyzed during the pre- and post-monsoon seasons. One hundred and two springs were documented with their characteristics. Field assessment shows that the discharges of more than 90% of the springs have decreased in the last 10 years which has increased the water stress for drinking water sources and for sanitation for communities in the region. Except for pH, EC, and total hardness, all other measured physicochemical parameters were below the WHO and National Drinking Water Quality Standards of Nepal, currently indicating no threat to consumer’s health. Water quality index scores indicate the water from the springs is excellent in the post-monsoon and excellent to good in the pre-monsoon seasons. Low seasonal chemical variability observed with a higher spatial difference, driven by the geology. We documented 38 macroinvertebrates families in the post-monsoon and 32 families in the pre-monsoon season. Macroinvertebrate richness [total and Ephemeroptera-Plecoptera-Trichoptera (EPT)] was greater in flowing springs compared to stagnant springs which were numerically dominated by Chironomidae. Discharge rate, elevation, EC, and nitrate concentrations were the main influencing factors shaping macroinvertebrate assemblages in the springs. We emphasize that actions must be implemented to conserve the societal and ecological value of Himalayan springs. Keywords Springs · Mapping · Macroinvertebrates · PCA · Water Quality Index
Introduction Developing countries of Asia (e.g., Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan), and other neighboring countries are facing serious water shortages due to different kinds of human activities, e.g., unplanned development, political issues, and climate change (Chellaney 2012). Springs are the main sources of water for drinking and domestic use in the region (Bhusal and Gyawali 2015; Shrestha et al. 2018; Gurung * Bhumika Thapa [email protected] 1
Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal
2
Nepal Water Conservation Foundation, Kathmandu, Nepal
3
Laboratory Services and Applied Science Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region III, Wheeling, WV, USA
et al. 2019), especially in mountainous areas (Tripathi et al. 2015). The assessment of a
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