Introduction and Historical Findings That Focused Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs as Emerging Pollutant
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are among the most consumed pharmaceuticals worldwide due to their significant anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties. These drugs are mainly excreted from the body in their metabolized form and may ente
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tents 1 Introduction 2 Pathways to the Environment: Life Cycle of NSAIDs 3 Occurrence of NSAIDs 3.1 Wastewater 3.2 Surface Water 3.3 Drinking Water and Groundwater 3.4 Sludge 4 Toxic Effects 4.1 Diclofenac 4.2 Paracetamol 4.3 Ibuprofen 4.4 Acetylsalicylic Acid 4.5 Naproxen 4.6 Ketoprofen 4.7 Mefenamic Acid 4.8 Nimesulide 5 Conclusions References
Abstract Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are among the most consumed pharmaceuticals worldwide due to their significant anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties. These drugs are mainly excreted from the body in their metabolized form and may enter into the environment through different pathways. In wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), these contaminants are mainly removed by biological treatment processes. However, even after these treatments, high concentrations of these drugs have been found in WWTPs effluents, surface water, and
G. A. Elizalde-Velázquez and L. M. Gómez-Oliván (*) Laboratorio de Toxicología Ambiental, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Toluca, México e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Leobardo Manuel Gómez-Oliván (ed.), Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Water: Emerging Contaminants and Ecological Impact, Hdb Env Chem, DOI 10.1007/698_2020_540, © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
G. A. Elizalde-Velázquez and L. M. Gómez-Oliván
drinking water. NSAIDs are likely to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms such as Mytilus galloprovincialis. Furthermore, toxic effects such as oxidative stress, developmental abnormalities, hepatotoxicity, immunosuppressive effects, and hematological alterations have been found in several freshwater species exposed to these pollutants. Therefore, NSAIDs are a threat to the human being as well as to our environment. This review comprehensively discusses the worldwide consumption of NSAIDs, their occurrence in the aquatic environments, and the toxic effects produced by these drugs in nontarget organisms. This is to raise awareness of the negative consequences of their occurrence in freshwater ecosystems and promote the creation of new alternatives for their removal from water. Keywords Fate, NSAIDs, Occurrence, Toxic effects
1 Introduction Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are an important heterogeneous group of drugs prescribed to treat inflammation, pain, and fever [1]. Their therapeutic effects are mainly mediated by the inhibition of cyclooxygenase isoforms, COX-1 and COX-2, involved in the synthesis of different prostaglandins from arachidonic acid [2]. Although, several studies have informed about the high toxicity and side effects of these drugs in humans, NSAIDs are among the most consumed drugs worldwide. Furthermore, it is expected their consumption steadily increases in the forthcoming years, as the prevalence of painful conditions, such as osteoarthritis and inflammatory diseases, will also likely to increase [3]. The growing consumption of NSAIDs reflects the ubiquitous occurrence of these pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. Numerous studie
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