Fluoride occurrence and human health risk from groundwater use at the west coast of Urmia Lake, Iran
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Fluoride occurrence and human health risk from groundwater use at the west coast of Urmia Lake, Iran Vahab Amiri 1
&
Ronny Berndtsson 2
Received: 15 November 2019 / Accepted: 20 August 2020 # Saudi Society for Geosciences 2020
Abstract We investigated fluoride (F−) concentration and physicochemical features of groundwater in the Urmia coastal aquifer (northwest, Iran). Groundwater samples were collected during both dry (58 wells) and wet seasons (84 wells). Approximately 15 and 23% of the groundwater samples in the dry and wet seasons, respectively, exceeded the recommended F− value by WHO for drinking water (1.5 mg/L). High F− concentration in groundwater is mainly found in shallow wells. The cause of high F− concentration appears to be mainly caused by human activities. Agricultural fertilizers and industrial waste can result in rapid release of F− into the groundwater. Release of F− into the groundwater can, however, also be triggered by the interaction between rock and water. In the experimental area, high F− concentrations were found close to volcanic rocks. Health risks from exposure to F− in groundwater were analyzed for adults and children. Utilizing sensitivity analysis and Monte Carlo simulation, the uncertainties in the risk estimates were calculated. Sensitivity analyses showed that the most pertinent variables are F− concentration in drinking water, averaging time, exposure time, and ingestion rate of water. Children are more susceptible to the noncarcinogenic risk of F− in groundwater. Keywords Fluoride . Hydrogeochemistry . Monte Carlo simulation . Human health risk . Deterministic and probabilistic approaches . Urmia aquifer
Notation SI IAP Kt ADDdem ADDing Cw EF
Saturation index Ion activity product Solubility product of a mineral in the equilibrium state Chronic daily dose through dermal exposure Chronic daily dose through ingestion Element concentration Exposure frequency
Responsible Editor: Amjad Kallel
IR ED BW AT Kp SA ET CF RfD RfDo RfDderm ABSgi
Ingestion rate Exposure duration Body weight Averaging time Dermal permeability constant Exposed skin surface area Exposure time Conversion factor Reference dose Oral reference dose Dermal reference dose Gastrointestinal absorption parameter
* Vahab Amiri [email protected]; [email protected] Ronny Berndtsson [email protected] 1
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
2
Division of Water Resources Engineering & Centre for Middle Eastern Studies, Lund University, Box 118, SE 221 00, Lund, Sweden
Introduction Fluoride (F−) exists in all kinds of water, rock, air, plants, animal, and human tissue (Raju 2017). Fluoride is a key micronutrient for human health like bone development and strengthening skeletal and teeth tissue (Rafique et al. 2009; Nielsen 2009; Liu et al. 2014; Subba Rao 2017; Rashid et al. 2018). However, long-term intake of F−-contaminated
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groundwater results in intense skeletal and dental fluorosis (Li et al. 2014; WHO 2017; Wu et al. 2015).
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