Multi-route human health risk assessment from trihalomethanes in drinking and non-drinking water in Abadan, Iran
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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Multi-route human health risk assessment from trihalomethanes in drinking and non-drinking water in Abadan, Iran Raheleh Kujlu 1 & Mostafa Mahdavianpour 1 & Farshid Ghanbari 1 Received: 22 March 2020 / Accepted: 1 July 2020 # The Author(s) 2020
Abstract Natural organic matter reacted with chlorine used for disinfection, and finally, trihalomethanes (THMs) are formatted. The main purpose of this study was to determine four THM concentrations and human health cancer risk and non-cancer risk assessment from exposure through oral ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation for males and females in Abadan. Two sampling sites were selected, and five samples before and after treatment by two different water treatment systems (RO and ion exchange) were collected every week. Results showed that total THM concentrations before and after treatment by RO were 98.1 and 8.88 μg/L, and ion exchange ranged between 101.9 and 14.96 μg/L, respectively, that before treatment was upper than the maximum of 80 mg/L recommended by USEPA. Inhalation was the primary route of exposure by around 80–90% of cancer risk. Total cancer risk was higher than the USEPA acceptable limit of 10−6 via three exposure routes. Oral route has the higher hazard index values than dermal ways. Keywords Abadan . Drinking water . Disinfection by-products . Risk assessment . Trihalomethanes
Introduction Providing safe water is a significant concern in public health. To achieve this important goal and to prevent secondary pollution, disinfectants are used during the last step of water treatment. Chlorine, chloramines, ozone, and ClO2 are general disinfectants. They can generate disinfection by-products (DBPs) that can take a risk to human health (Al-Otoum et al. 2016). Among all disinfection methods, chlorination is used frequently because of low costs, effectiveness, and simple operation (Arman et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2007). Chlorine secure human health risk from waterborne diseases, deactivated microorganism and immune bacteria, virus, and protozoa regrowth in the water distribution system (Pentamwa Responsible Editor: Lotfi Aleya * Raheleh Kujlu [email protected] Mostafa Mahdavianpour [email protected] Farshid Ghanbari [email protected] 1
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Abadan Faculty of Medical Sciences, Abadan, Iran
et al. 2013). Chlorine interacts with organic matter especially humic and fulvic acids, and up to 700 species of DBPs are produced (Genisoglu et al. 2019; Grellier et al. 2015; Pan et al. 2014). Among them, trihalomethanes (THMs) are the most critical disinfectant by-products (Genisoglu et al. 2019; Golea et al. 2017; Mohammadi et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2019). THMs are include chloroform (CHCl3), dichlorobromomethane (CHCl2Br), chlorodibromomethane (CHClBr2), and bromoform (CHBr3) (Arman et al. 2016). According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), these compounds are categorized as groups B1, B2, and C (Wang et al. 2019). Several researches showed that DBPs can enhance the hazard of s
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