Ultrasonication: a process intensification tool for methyl ester synthesis: a mini review
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REVIEW ARTICLE
Ultrasonication: a process intensification tool for methyl ester synthesis: a mini review Muhammad Nor Fazli Abd Malek 1 & Noraini Mat Hussin 1 & Nurul Hajar Embong 1 & Prakash Bhuyar 1 & Mohd Hasbi Ab. Rahim 1,2 & Natanamurugaraj Govindan 1,2 & Gaanty Pragas Maniam 1,2,3 Received: 7 September 2020 / Revised: 14 October 2020 / Accepted: 16 October 2020 # Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020
Abstract Process intensification has been a promising tool for efficient energy usage, especially in the production of products that are considered energy sources, such as biodiesel. The very mechanism of ultrasound in aiding the reactions lies in the implosion of cavitation bubbles that generate hot regions with extremely high temperatures that reach as high as thousands of degree Celsius on a microsecond timescale. As biodiesel is emerging as an alternate green fuel or extender for fossil diesel that is apparent from the biodiesel mandates across the globe, sonochemistry technology is sought-after as a tool to produce biofuel in a much efficient way. Research and development in this technology is crucial to keep the biodiesel industry relevant by lowering the production cost, as the cost of production is seen as one of the major obstacles in biodiesel commercialization. In addition, by utilizing process intensification tools, the amount of catalyst and associated issues (abundant wastewater generation and treatment, process cycle time) can be reduced, in turn making the process much greener. Ultrasound not only accelerates the reaction rate but also assists in the miscibility of oil and methanol, thus decreasing the amount of catalyst needed for the reaction. While many articles have been issued on ultrasound-assisted biodiesel production, a comprehensive review on the very topic of ultrasound in biodiesel is somehow missing. This review intends to explore the use of ultrasound in transesterification and esterification reactions to produce methyl esters (biodiesel). Keywords Biodiesel . Ultrasonic . Probe and bath sonicator . Cavitation . Transesterification . Environmental remediation
1 Introduction 1.1 Biodiesel Biodiesel is well known as a greener fuel due to its lesspolluted exhaust profile compared to petro-diesel. In 2013, for the very first time in human history, CO2 levels in the atmosphere exceeded 300 ppm. The rate of environmental
* Gaanty Pragas Maniam [email protected] 1
Faculty of Industrial Sciences and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, Gambang, 26300 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
2
Earth Resources & Sustainability Centre, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, Gambang, 26300 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
3
Central Laboratory, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Lebuhraya Tun Razak, Gambang, 26300 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia
damage continues to increase, and in June 2019, the CO2 reading at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii reached 413.92 ppm [1–3]. The concerns for environmental destruction have forced many countries to enact mandates to utiliz
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